ג׳
א׳עֵדִים שֶׁרָאוּ אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ אִם הָיָה בֵּינֵיהֶם וּבֵין מָקוֹם שֶׁיֵּשׁ בּוֹ בֵּית דִּין מַהֲלַךְ לַיְלָה וָיוֹם אוֹ פָּחוֹת הוֹלְכִין וּמְעִידִין. וְאִם הָיָה בֵּינֵיהֶן יֶתֶר עַל כֵּן לֹא יֵלְכוּ שֶׁאֵין עֵדוּתָן אַחַר יוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים מוֹעֶלֶת שֶׁכְּבָר נִתְעַבֵּר הַחֹדֶשׁ:
1When witnesses see the new [moon], and there is a journey of the night and a day or less between them and the place where the court holds sessions,1The Rambam does not say "a one-day distance from Jerusalem," because after the destruction of the Temple, the High Court would sanctify the new month in other places. (See Rosh HaShanah 22b.) they should undertake the journey and testify. If the distance between them is greater, they should not undertake the journey. For the testimony [that they will deliver] after the thirtieth day will be of no consequence,2Note the apparent contradiction in Halachah 15. In the light of that halachah, it would appear that the Rambam's intent is that since the court endeavors to nullify such testimony, it is undesirable for the witnesses to come and offer it (Lechem Mishneh). since the month will already have been made full.
ב׳עֵדִים שֶׁרָאוּ אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ הֲרֵי אֵלּוּ הוֹלְכִין לְבֵית דִּין לְהָעִיד וַאֲפִלּוּ הָיָה שַׁבָּת שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (ויקרא כג ד) "אֲשֶׁר תִּקְרְאוּ אֹתָם בְּמוֹעֲדָם" וְכָל מָקוֹם שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר מוֹעֵד דּוֹחֶה אֶת הַשַּׁבָּת. לְפִיכָךְ אֵין מְחַלְּלִין אֶלָּא עַל רֹאשׁ חֹדֶשׁ נִיסָן וְעַל רֹאשׁ חֹדֶשׁ תִּשְׁרֵי בִּלְבַד מִפְּנֵי תַּקָּנַת הַמּוֹעֲדוֹת. וּבִזְמַן שֶׁבֵּית הַמִּקְדָּשׁ קַיָּם מְחַלְּלִין עַל כֻּלָּן מִפְּנֵי קָרְבַּן מוּסָף שֶׁבְּכָל רֹאשׁ חֹדֶשׁ וְחֹדֶשׁ שֶׁהוּא דּוֹחֶה אֶת הַשַּׁבָּת:
2The witnesses who see the new [moon] should journey to the court to testify even on the Sabbath, as [implied by Leviticus 23:2]: "[These are the festivals] you should proclaim in their season." Whenever [the Torah] uses the word "season," the Sabbath [prohibitions]3The Rambam is referring to the prohibitions associated with going beyond the Sabbath limits and the performance of any forbidden labors necessary for their journey - e.g., carrying food or weapons. may be overridden.Therefore, [the Sabbath prohibitions] may be violated only for the sake of Rosh Chodesh Nisan and Rosh Chodesh Tishrei,4Significantly, the month of Sivan is not mentioned, although the holiday of Shavuot is celebrated then. The celebration of Shavuot depends, not on a particular day of the month, but on the conclusion of the counting of the Omer. Thus when Rosh Chodesh was determined by the testimony of witnesses, Shavuot could be celebrated on the fifth, sixth, or seventh of Sivan (Rosh HaShanah 6b). to commemorate the festivals in their proper season. In the era of the Temple, [the Sabbath prohibitions] were violated for the sake of every Rosh Chodesh, because of the musaf offering sacrificed on Rosh Chodesh,5See Hilchot Temidim UMusafim 7:1,4, Hilchot Korban Pesach 1:18. since its [sacrifice] supersedes the Sabbath prohibitions.6The sacrifice of any offerings associated with a fixed time supersedes the Sabbath prohibitions.
ג׳כְּשֵׁם שֶׁמְּחַלְּלִין הָעֵדִים שֶׁרָאוּ אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ אֶת הַשַּׁבָּת כָּךְ מְחַלְּלִין עִמָּהֶן הָעֵדִים שֶׁמְּזַכִּין אוֹתָן בְּבֵית דִּין אִם לֹא הָיוּ בֵּית דִּין מַכִּירִין אֶת הָרוֹאִין. וַאֲפִלּוּ הָיָה זֶה שֶׁמּוֹדִיעַ אוֹתָן לְבֵית דִּין עֵד אֶחָד הֲרֵי זֶה הוֹלֵךְ עִמָּהֶן וּמְחַלֵּל מִסָּפֵק שֶׁמָּא יִמָּצֵא אַחֵר וְיִצְטָרֵף עִמּוֹ:
3Just as the witnesses who see the new [moon] should violate the Sabbath [to testify], so too, the witnesses who substantiate their credibility7I.e., the character witnesses mentioned in Chapter 2, Halachah 3. should violate [the Sabbath to accompany] them, if the court is not familiar with the witnesses.Even if only a single individual can testify regarding the witnesses, he should accompany them and violate the Sabbath,8This law is based on an actual historical account. Rabbi Nehorai traveled to Usha together with witnesses to substantiate their credibility, in the hope of finding another person there to testify together with him (Rosh HaShanah 22b). because of the possibility9The Perush questions why the Sabbath laws are broken when there is only a possibility of performing a mitzvah, citing a similar situation - a baby born after sunset on Friday. He should not be circumcised on the following Sabbath, because there is a doubt whether circumcision should be performed on Friday or on the Sabbath (Hilchot Milah 1:12).The subsequent commentaries offer several resolutions to this difficulty. Among them:a) Circumcision can be performed at a later date, while the sanctification of the new moon cannot be postponed (Lechem Mishneh);b) Traveling to Jerusalem to testify always involves violating the Sabbath laws with only a possibility of performing the mitzvah, for it is possible that the court will reject the witnesses' testimony (Rav David Arameah). that they might encounter another individual who can [testify] together with him.
ד׳הָיָה הָעֵד שֶׁרָאָה אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ בְּלֵיל הַשַּׁבָּת חוֹלֶה מַרְכִּיבִין אוֹתוֹ עַל הַחֲמוֹר וַאֲפִלּוּ בַּמִּטָּה. וְאִם יֵשׁ לָהֶן אוֹרֵב בַּדֶּרֶךְ לוֹקְחִין הָעֵדִים בְּיָדָן כְּלֵי זַיִן. וְאִם הָיָה דֶּרֶךְ רְחוֹקָה לוֹקְחִים בְּיָדָם מְזוֹנוֹת. וַאֲפִלּוּ רָאוּהוּ גָּדוֹל וְנִרְאֶה לַכּל לֹא יֹאמְרוּ כְּשֵׁם שֶׁרְאִינוּהוּ אֲנַחְנוּ רָאוּהוּ אֲחֵרִים וְאֵין אָנוּ צְרִיכִין לְחַלֵּל אֶת הַשַּׁבָּת אֶלָּא כָּל מִי שֶׁיִּרְאֶה הַחֹדֶשׁ וְיִהְיֶה רָאוּי לְהָעִיד וְיִהְיֶה בֵּינוֹ וּבֵין הַמָּקוֹם שֶׁקָּבוּעַ בּוֹ בֵּית דִּין לַיְלָה וָיוֹם אוֹ פָּחוֹת מִצְוָה עָלָיו לְחַלֵּל אֶת הַשַּׁבָּת וְלֵילֵךְ וּלְהָעִיד:
4When a witness who sighted the moon on Friday night is sick, he may be mounted on a donkey [and transported to the High Court].10Leading a healthy person on a donkey is not considered to be transporting him in violation of the Sabbath labors, because "a living being carries himself." If, however, the person is sick, this principle does not apply, and he is considered a burden, so that transporting him on a donkey involves a prohibition (Hilchot Shabbat 18:16, 20:1-2). Nevertheless, this prohibition is waived in the endeavor to sanctify the new moon. [Indeed,] even [if he is bedridden,] his bed [may be transported].11Rav David Arameah interprets this to mean that men are allowed to carry him to the court on his bed.If an ambush awaits them on the way,12Rashi, Rosh HaShanah 22a, relates that the Sadducees would lie in ambush for the witnesses, with the intent of delaying their appearance in court until after the thirtieth day had passed. the witnesses may carry weapons. If the distance [to the court] is long, they may carry food.Even if the moon was sighted [with a] large [crescent], and [one is certain that] it was also sighted by many others as well, he should not say, "Just as we saw [the moon], so did others, and there is no necessity for us to violate the Sabbath laws."13In his Commentary on the Mishnah (Rosh HaShanah 1:5), the Rambam explains that although the moon might be seen very clearly in one place, in other locales it might have appeared low on the horizon, or covered by clouds. Therefore, it is desirable for all potential witnesses to journey to Jerusalem to make sure that the new moon is sanctified in its proper time. Instead, every person who saw the new moon, who is fit to serve as a witness, and who is within a distance of the night and a day14I.e., there is sufficient time for the witness(es) to arrive at the High Court on the thirtieth day. or less is commanded to violate the Sabbath laws and go and testify.15In this vein, it is worthy to note a story related in Rosh HaShanah 1:6. Forty pairs of witnesses passed through Lod on their way to Jerusalem to testify regarding the sighting of the moon. Rabbi Akiva held them back, because he saw that their testimony would not stand up under cross-examination by the court. Rabban Gamliel rebuked him, explaining that this would prevent them from journeying to Jerusalem at a future date, when their testimony might be of consequence. (See the Rambam's Commentary on the Mishnah.)
ה׳בָּרִאשׁוֹנָה הָיוּ מְקַבְּלִין עֵדוּת הַחֹדֶשׁ בְּכָל יוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים. פַּעַם אַחַת נִשְׁתַּהוּ הָעֵדִים מִלָּבוֹא עַד בֵּין הָעַרְבַּיִם וְנִתְקַלְקְלוּ בַּמִּקְדָּשׁ וְלֹא יָדְעוּ מַה יַּעֲשׂוּ אִם יַעֲשׂוּ עוֹלָה שֶׁל בֵּין הָעַרְבַּיִם שֶׁמָּא יָבוֹאוּ הָעֵדִים וְאִי אֶפְשָׁר שֶׁיַּקְרִיבוּ מוּסַף הַיּוֹם אַחַר תָּמִיד שֶׁל בֵּין הָעַרְבַּיִם. עָמְדוּ בֵּית דִּין וְהִתְקִינוּ שֶׁלֹּא יִהְיוּ מְקַבְּלִים עֵדוּת הַחֹדֶשׁ אֶלָּא עַד הַמִּנְחָה כְּדֵי שֶׁיְּהֵא שָׁהוּת בַּיּוֹם לְהַקְרִיב מוּסָפִין וְתָמִיד שֶׁל בֵּין הָעַרְבַּיִם וְנִסְכֵּיהֶם:
5Originally, [the High Court] would accept testimony regarding the new moon throughout the entire thirtieth day. Once the witnesses were delayed and did not come until the evening. This created confusion in the Temple, and [the priests] did not know what to do:16More specifically, Rosh HaShanah 30b states that the problem concerns the song to be sung by the Levites in connection with the sacrifice. Had there not been a difficulty with the song, the afternoon sacrifice could have been offered conditionally: If no witnesses come, the lamb would be considered the afternoon sacrifice; and if the witnesses do come, it would be considered part of the musaf offering (Rishon LeTzion).Significantly, as reflected in the discussion in Rosh HaShanah (ibid.), the instance in question concerned the celebration of Rosh HaShanah, and not an ordinary Rosh Chodesh. If they would offer the afternoon sacrifice, [a difficulty would result] if witnesses [in fact] came, for it is impossible to sacrifice the musaf offering [of Rosh Chodesh] after the daily afternoon sacrifice.17For once the afternoon sacrifice is offered, no other offerings may be sacrificed (Pesachim 58b; Hilchot Temidim UMusafim 1:3).At that time, [the High] Court instituted the [following] edict: Testimony regarding the new moon would be accepted only until the time of minchah,18This refers to the time of the afternoon sacrifice, nine and a half seasonal hours (שעות זמניות) after sunrise (The Rambam's Commentary on the Mishnah, Rosh HaShanah 4:4, Hilchot Temidim UMusafim 1:3). so that there would be enough time in the daylight hours to offer the musaf sacrifices, the daily afternoon offering, and the wine libations [that accompany these sacrifices].
ו׳וְאִם הִגִּיעַ מִנְחָה וְלֹא בָּאוּ עֵדִים עוֹשִׂין תָּמִיד שֶׁל בֵּין הָעַרְבַּיִם. וְאִם בָּאוּ עֵדִים מִן הַמִּנְחָה וּלְמַעְלָה נוֹהֲגִין אוֹתוֹ הַיּוֹם קֹדֶשׁ וּלְמָחָר קֹדֶשׁ וּמַקְרִיבִין מוּסָף לְמָחָר לְפִי שֶׁלֹּא הָיוּ מְקַדְּשִׁין אוֹתוֹ אַחַר מִנְחָה. מִשֶּׁחָרַב בֵּית הַמִּקְדָּשׁ הִתְקִין רַבָּן יוֹחָנָן בֵּן זַכַּאי וּבֵית דִּינוֹ שֶׁיִּהְיוּ מְקַבְּלִין עֵדוּת הַחֹדֶשׁ כָּל הַיּוֹם כֻּלּוֹ וַאֲפִלּוּ בָּאוּ עֵדִים יוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים בְּסוֹף הַיּוֹם סָמוּךְ לִשְׁקִיעַת הַחַמָּה מְקַבְּלִין עֵדוּתָן וּמְקַדְּשִׁין יוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים בִּלְבַד:
6If the time of minchah arrives without witnesses having come, the daily afternoon offering should be sacrificed. If witnesses come after the time of minchah,19The Rambam is referring to Rosh HaShanah. this day should be observed as a holiday,20Indeed, the people would observe the day as a holiday from nightfall on the previous day, lest witnesses come and the new moon be sanctified (Rashi, Rosh HaShanah 30b). See Halachah 9, and Chapter 5, Halachah 8. and the following day should be observed as a holiday. The musaf offering, however, should be offered on the following day, because the new moon should not be sanctified after the time of minchah.After the Temple was destroyed,21And there were no longer any difficulties concerning the sacrifices. Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai and his court22Rabban Yochanan ben Zakkai lived at the time of the Temple's destruction, and this decree was instituted shortly after that event. instituted a decree [requiring the High Court] to accept testimony regarding the new moon throughout the entire day. Even if witnesses come at the end of the thirtieth day before sunset,23The Lechem Mishneh and others have raised questions about the Rambam's choice of wording, based on his previous statements in Chapter 2, Halachah 9. Merkevet HaMishneh offers a simple resolution of this difficulty. Here we are speaking of the acceptance of the witnesses' testimony, and it is necessary to take time to cross-examine them. This process cannot be completed in the meager amount of time between sunset and the appearance of the stars. their testimony should be accepted and the thirtieth day alone should be considered a holiday.
ז׳כְּשֶׁמְּעַבְּרִין בֵּית דִּין אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ מִפְּנֵי שֶׁלֹּא בָּאוּ עֵדִים כָּל יוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים הָיוּ עוֹלִין לְמָקוֹם מוּכָן וְעוֹשִׂין בּוֹ סְעֻדָּה בְּיוֹם אֶחָד וּשְׁלֹשִׁים שֶׁהוּא רֹאשׁ חֹדֶשׁ. וְאֵין עוֹלִין לְשָׁם בַּלַּיְלָה אֶלָּא בַּנֶּשֶׁף קֹדֶם עֲלוֹת הַשֶּׁמֶשׁ. וְאֵין עוֹלִין לִסְעֻדָּה זוֹ פָּחוֹת מֵעֲשָׂרָה. וְאֵין עוֹלִין לָהּ אֶלָּא בְּפַת דָּגָן וְקִטְנִית. וְאוֹכְלִין בְּעֵת הַסְּעֻדָּה. וְזוֹ הִיא סְעֻדַּת מִצְוָה שֶׁל עִבּוּר הַחֹדֶשׁ הָאֲמוּרָה בְּכָל מָקוֹם:
7When the court would make a month full because the witnesses did not appear on the thirtieth day at all, they would ascend to a previously designated place and hold a feast on the thirty-first day, which would be Rosh Chodesh.24The purpose of holding this feast would be to publicize that the month had become full.They would not ascend there during the [thirty-first] night, but rather at daybreak, before the sun rose.25Sanhedrin 70a relates that the participants in this meal would ascend in a time that is neither day nor night. Thus, the Rambam interprets this as referring to the time between the appearance of the first rays of the sun and sunrise itself. Rashi and others maintain that the participants would ascend in the evening, between sunset and the appearance of the stars. No fewer than ten men would ascend [to participate] in this meal. They would not hold this meal without bread made from grain and legumes, of which they would partake during the meal. This is the intent of all the sources that refer to the feast associated with the mitzvah of the full month.
ח׳בָּרִאשׁוֹנָה כְּשֶׁהָיוּ בֵּית דִּין מְקַדְּשִׁין אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ הָיוּ מַשִּׂיאִין מַשּׂוּאוֹת בְּרָאשֵׁי הֶהָרִים כְּדֵי שֶׁיֵּדְעוּ הָרְחוֹקִים. מִשֶּׁקִּלְקְלוּ הַכּוּתִים שֶׁהָיוּ מַשִּׂיאִין מַשּׂוּאוֹת כְּדֵי לְהַטְעוֹת אֶת הָעָם הִתְקִינוּ שֶׁיְּהוּ שְׁלוּחִים יוֹצְאִין וּמוֹדִיעִין לָרַבִּים. וּשְׁלוּחִים אֵלּוּ אֵינָן מְחַלְּלִין אֶת יוֹם טוֹב וְלֹא אֶת יוֹם הַכִּפּוּרִים וְאֵין צָרִיךְ לוֹמַר שַׁבָּת שֶׁאֵין מְחַלְּלִין אֶת הַשַּׁבָּת לְקַיְּמוֹ אֶלָּא לְקַדְּשׁוֹ בִּלְבַד:
8Originally, when the court would sanctify the new moon, they would light bonfires26The fires would be lit in the evening of the thirty-first night. on the mountaintops to notify the people in distant places.27There are mountains surrounding Jerusalem on all sides. The bonfires on these mountains could be seen by people on further mountains, until in a short amount of time people throughout Eretz Yisrael could be notified that the new moon had been sanctified. When the Samaritans began conducting themselves in a debased manner and would light bonfires [at the wrong times] to confuse the people,28The Samaritans lived between Jerusalem and the Galilee. At one point, they desired to disrupt the calculation of the calendar and would light bonfires on the evening before the thirty-first day, regardless of whether or not the moon was sighted. The people in the Galilee would think that the chain of bonfires had begun in Jerusalem (Rosh HaShanah 22b). [the Sages] instituted the practice of having messengers journey to notify the people.29The Jerusalem Talmud (Rosh HaShanah 2:1) states that Rabbi Yehudah HaNasi was the one who nullified the bonfires, and substituted messengers instead. This, however, is somewhat difficult to accept because, as the Rambam mentions in Halachah 9, there were times when the messengers were sent out while the Temple was standing. Perhaps the intent is that until the time of Rabbi Yehudah HaNasi there were times when both messengers were sent out and bonfires were lit. From his time onward, the bonfires were no longer used.These messengers may not violate [the sanctity of] the holidays, nor of Yom Kippur [by traveling on these days]. Needless to say, they may not violate [the sanctity of] the Sabbath. For one may not violate the Sabbath to uphold [the sanctification of] the new month, only to [actually] sanctify it.
ט׳עַל שִׁשָּׁה חֳדָשִׁים הָיוּ שְׁלוּחִים יוֹצְאִין. עַל נִיסָן מִפְּנֵי הַפֶּסַח. וְעַל אָב מִפְּנֵי הַתַּעֲנִית. וְעַל אֱלוּל מִפְּנֵי רֹאשׁ הַשָּׁנָה. כְּדֵי שֶׁיֵּשְׁבוּ מְצַפִּין בְּיוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים לֶאֱלוּל אִם נוֹדַע לָהֶם שֶׁקִּדְּשׁוּ בֵּית דִּין יוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים נוֹהֲגִים אוֹתוֹ הַיּוֹם קֹדֶשׁ בִּלְבַד. וְאִם לֹא נוֹדַע לָהֶם נוֹהֲגִים יוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים קֹדֶשׁ וְיוֹם אֶחָד וּשְׁלֹשִׁים קֹדֶשׁ עַד שֶׁיָּבוֹאוּ לָהֶם שְׁלוּחֵי תִּשְׁרֵי. וְעַל תִּשְׁרֵי מִפְּנֵי תַּקָּנַת הַמּוֹעֲדוֹת. וְעַל כִּסְלֵו מִפְּנֵי חֲנֻכָּה. וְעַל אֲדָר מִפְּנֵי הַפּוּרִים. וּבִזְמַן שֶׁבֵּית הַמִּקְדָּשׁ קַיָּם יוֹצְאִין אַף עַל אִיָּר מִפְּנֵי פֶּסַח קָטָן:
9Messengers are sent out [to inform the people] for six months: For Nisan, because of Pesach. For Av, because of the fast [of Tish'ah B'Av].30Rosh HaShanah 18b relates that in that era, fasting on the other commemorative fasts - the tenth of Tevet and the seventeenth of Tammuz - was not mandatory. Therefore, it was not necessary to send out messengers for these months. For Elul, because of Rosh HaShanah - i.e., so they could wait in readiness on the thirtieth day of Elul.31The Rambam maintains that the people would observe Rosh HaShanah for two days, because of the doubt. Thus, if the people did not know when the month of Elul began, they would have to observe three days (Lechem Mishneh). If it became known to them that the High Court had sanctified the thirtieth day, they would observe only that day as a holiday. If it did not become known to them,32This is speaking about the villages in the immediate vicinity of Jerusalem. they would observe both the thirtieth and the thirty-first days [as Rosh HaShanah] until the messengers of Tishrei arrived.For Tishrei, because of the festivals. For Kislev, because of Chanukah. For Adar, because of Purim.33The commentaries note that Rosh HaShanah 19b also mentions the possibility of the messengers' being sent out in the second month of Adar if a leap year is declared. This, however, is an infrequent event, because generally, the decision to make the year a leap year was not made at the last moment (Aruch HaShulchan). While the Beit HaMikdash was standing, [messengers] also would be sent out for the month of Iyar, because of the small Pesach.34Pesach Sheni, when all those who had not offered a sacrifice on the first Pesach were given a further opportunity to bring this offering.Messengers were not sent out for the month of Sivan, because the celebration of Shavuot is not dependent on the date of the month, but on the Counting of the Omer (Perush).
י׳שְׁלוּחֵי נִיסָן וּשְׁלוּחֵי תִּשְׁרֵי אֵין יוֹצְאִין אֶלָּא בְּיוֹם רֹאשׁ חֹדֶשׁ אַחַר שֶׁתַּעֲלֶה הַשֶּׁמֶשׁ עַד שֶׁיִּשְׁמְעוּ מִפִּי בֵּית דִּין מְקֻדָּשׁ. וְאִם קִדְּשׁוּ בֵּית דִּין בְּסוֹף יוֹם תִּשְׁעָה וְעֶשְׂרִים כְּמוֹ שֶׁאָמַרְנוּ וְשָׁמְעוּ מִפִּי בֵּית דִּין מְקֻדָּשׁ יוֹצְאִין מִבָּעֶרֶב. וּשְׁלוּחֵי שְׁאָר הַשִּׁשָּׁה חֳדָשִׁים יֵשׁ לָהֶם לָצֵאת מִבָּעֶרֶב אַחַר שֶׁנִּרְאָה הַיָּרֵחַ אַף עַל פִּי שֶׁעֲדַיִן לֹא קִדְּשׁוּ בֵּית דִּין אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ הוֹאִיל וְנִרְאֶה הַחֹדֶשׁ יָצְאוּ שֶׁהֲרֵי לְמָחָר בְּוַדַּאי מְקַדְּשִׁין אוֹתוֹ בֵּית דִּין:
10[Even when the moon was clearly sighted on the previous night,] the messengers for the months of Nisan and Tishrei would not depart35The messengers for the month of Tishrei could travel only 2000 cubits beyond Jerusalem (or 4000 cubits, if they made an eruv t'chumim) on Rosh HaShanah, because of the sanctity of that day (Perush). until the sun rose and they heard the court pronounce, "It has been sanctified."36Since the holidays observed in these months were prescribed by the Torah itself, this further stringency was required (ibid.). If, however, the court sanctified the moon at the conclusion of the twenty-ninth day, [which is possible,] as we have explained,37See Chapter 2, Halachah 9. and the messengers heard the court pronounce it sanctified, they might depart that evening.The messengers for the other months, by contrast, may depart in the evening after the moon has been sighted. Although the court has not sanctified the new month, since the new moon has been sighted, they may depart, for the court will surely sanctify the new month on the following day.
י״אכָּל מָקוֹם שֶׁהָיוּ הַשְּׁלוּחִין מַגִּיעִין הָיוּ עוֹשִׂין אֶת הַמּוֹעֲדוֹת יוֹם טוֹב אֶחָד כַּכָּתוּב בַּתּוֹרָה. וּמְקוֹמוֹת הָרְחוֹקִים שֶׁאֵין הַשְּׁלוּחִים מַגִּיעִין אֲלֵיהֶם הָיוּ עוֹשִׂין שְׁנֵי יָמִים מִפְּנֵי הַסָּפֵק לְפִי שֶׁאֵינָם יוֹדְעִים יוֹם שֶׁקָּבְעוּ בּוֹ בֵּית דִּין אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ אֵי זֶה יוֹם הוּא:
11Wherever these messengers would arrive [before the celebration of the festivals], the holidays would be observed for [only] one day, as prescribed by the Torah. In the distant places, which the messengers would not reach [before the celebration of the festivals],38The observance of an additional day of the holidays is described in greater detail in Chapter 5. the holidays would be observed for two days because of the doubt [involved]. For they would not know the day on which the High Court established the new month.39Thus, if the thirtieth day following Rosh Chodesh Adar fell on the Sabbath, they would not know whether Pesach (the fifteenth day of the following month) would be celebrated on the Sabbath or on Sunday.
י״ביֵשׁ מְקוֹמוֹת שֶׁהָיוּ מַגִּיעִין אֲלֵיהֶם שְׁלוּחֵי נִיסָן וְלֹא הָיוּ מַגִּיעִין לָהֶן שְׁלוּחֵי תִּשְׁרֵי. וּמִן הַדִּין הָיָה שֶׁיַּעֲשׂוּ פֶּסַח יוֹם אֶחָד שֶׁהֲרֵי הִגִּיעוּ לָהֶן שְׁלוּחִין וְיָדְעוּ בְּאֵי זֶה יוֹם נִקְבַּע רֹאשׁ חֹדֶשׁ. וְיַעֲשׂוּ יוֹם טוֹב שֶׁל חַג הַסֻּכּוֹת שְׁנֵי יָמִים שֶׁהֲרֵי לֹא הִגִּיעוּ אֲלֵיהֶן הַשְּׁלוּחִין. וּכְדֵי שֶׁלֹּא לַחֲלֹק בַּמּוֹעֲדוֹת הִתְקִינוּ חֲכָמִים שֶׁכָּל מָקוֹם שֶׁאֵין שְׁלוּחֵי תִּשְׁרֵי מַגִּיעִין שָׁם עוֹשִׂין שְׁנֵי יָמִים אֲפִלּוּ יוֹם טוֹב שֶׁל עֲצֶרֶת:
12There are places where the messengers [sent out for] Nisan would arrive [in time for the celebration of Pesach], but the messengers [sent out for] Tishrei would not arrive [in time for the celebration of Sukkot].40For, as explained in the following halachah, the messengers sent out for Tishrei would not travel on Rosh HaShanah or on Yom Kippur.In the brackets, we mention the holiday of Sukkot, but not Yom Kippur. For Yom Kippur was never observed by a community at large for two days. Rosh HaShanah 21a relates that Rabbah would fast for two days, but this was a stringency that he accepted on himself as an individual. The people in the diaspora would fast ten days after the thirtieth day following Rosh Chodesh Elul, for the court always endeavored to make Elul a month of 29 days. (See Or Sameach.) According to [the letter of] the law, it would have been appropriate for them to observe Pesach for one day, since the messengers reached them and informed them when Rosh Chodesh had been established, and for them to observe Sukkot for two days, since the messengers had not reached them. Nevertheless, so that there would be no difference between the festivals, the Sages instituted the ruling that two days were celebrated [for all holidays] in all places that were not reached by the messengers for Tishrei. [This includes] even the festival of Shavuot.41As mentioned several times, Shavuot is unique, because its observance is dependent, not on a date in the month of Sivan, but on the Counting of the Omer, which begins after Pesach. Thus, even Jews living in the outer reaches of the diaspora were able to know when Shavuot was to be observed.
י״גוְכַמָּה בֵּין שְׁלוּחֵי נִיסָן לִשְׁלוּחֵי תִּשְׁרֵי. שְׁנֵי יָמִים. שֶׁשְּׁלוּחֵי תִּשְׁרֵי אֵינָן מְהַלְּכִין בְּאֶחָד בְּתִשְׁרֵי מִפְּנֵי שֶׁהוּא יוֹם טוֹב וְלֹא בַּעֲשִׂירִי בּוֹ מִפְּנֵי שֶׁהוּא יוֹם כִּפּוּר:
13[How many more] days do the messengers for Nisan journey than the messengers for Tishrei? Two. For the messengers for Tishrei do not travel on the first of Tishrei, because it is a holiday, nor on the tenth, because it is Yom Kippur.42There is also the possibility of additional days, if there are more Sabbaths in Tishrei than in Nisan.
י״דאֵין הַשְּׁלוּחִין צְרִיכִין לִהְיוֹתָן שְׁנַיִם אֶלָּא אֲפִלּוּ אֶחָד נֶאֱמָן. וְלֹא שָׁלִיחַ בִּלְבַד אֶלָּא אֲפִלּוּ תַּגָּר מִשְּׁאָר הָעָם שֶׁבָּא כְּדַרְכּוֹ וְאָמַר אֲנִי שָׁמַעְתִּי מִפִּי בֵּית דִּין שֶׁקִּדְּשׁוּ אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ בְּיוֹם פְּלוֹנִי נֶאֱמָן וּמְתַקְּנִין אֶת הַמּוֹעֲדוֹת עַל פִּיו. שֶׁדָּבָר זֶה דָּבָר הֶעָשׂוּי לְהִגָּלוֹת הוּא וְעֵד אֶחָד כָּשֵׁר נֶאֱמָן עָלָיו:
14There is no need for there to be two messengers. Even a single individual's [statements] are believed. Moreover, this does not apply to messengers alone. Even when a [traveling] merchant of no particular distinction passes through on his journey, and says: "I heard from the court43From the Rambam's wording, it would appear that it is necessary that the merchant receive his information from the High Court directly; hearing from others is not sufficient. that it sanctified the new month on such and such a date," his statements are believed, and the [celebration of] the festivals is arranged accordingly.[The rationale is that] this is a matter that will [eventually] be revealed.44Rosh HaShanah 22b states that people will not lie about a matter when it is certain that eventually the truth will be revealed. Therefore, the testimony of a single acceptable witness is sufficient.45The commentaries compare the Rambam's statements here with those at the conclusion of Hilchot Gerushin. In the latter source, he employs the same rationale - that the truth of the matter will eventually be revealed - to explain why leniency is shown concerning testimony given to determine that a woman's husband has died, which enables her to remarry. In that instance, however, even greater leniency is shown, and the court accepts the testimony of witnesses who are otherwise unacceptable. The commentaries explain that the greater leniency is granted in consideration of the agonizing situation of the widow.
ט״ובֵּית דִּין שֶׁיָּשְׁבוּ כָּל יוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים וְלֹא בָּאוּ עֵדִים וְהִשְׁכִּימוּ בַּנֶּשֶׁף וְעִבְּרוּ אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ כְּמוֹ שֶׁבֵּאַרְנוּ בְּפֶרֶק זֶה. וְאַחַר אַרְבָּעָה אוֹ חֲמִשָּׁה יָמִים בָּאוּ עֵדִים רְחוֹקִים וְהֵעִידוּ שֶׁרָאוּ אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ בִּזְמַנּוֹ שֶׁהוּא לֵיל שְׁלֹשִׁים. וַאֲפִלּוּ בָּאוּ בְּסוֹף הַחֹדֶשׁ. מְאַיְּמִין עֲלֵיהֶן אִיּוּם גָּדוֹל וּמַטְרִיפִים אוֹתָם בִּשְׁאֵלוֹת וּמַטְרִיחִין עֲלֵיהֶן בִּבְדִיקוֹת וּמְדַקְדְּקִין בְּעֵדוּת וּמִשְׁתַּדְּלִין בֵּית דִּין שֶׁלֹּא יְקַדְּשׁוּ חֹדֶשׁ זֶה הוֹאִיל וְיָצָא שְׁמוֹ מְעֻבָּר:
15[The following rules apply when] the court held session throughout the entire thirtieth day, but witnesses did not arrive, [the judges] arose early in the morning and made the month full, as we stated previously in this chapter,46See Halachah 7. and after four or five days witnesses came from distant places and testified that they had sighted the moon at the appropriate time, the thirtieth night. [Indeed, the same principles apply if the witnesses] come at the end of the month.We unnerve them in a very intimidating matter, and we seek to disorient them with queries. We cross-examine them very thoroughly and are extremely precise regarding their testimony. [For] the court endeavors not to sanctify this month, since it has already been declared full.47The Rambam's statements in this and the following four halachot are based on his interpretation of Rosh HaShanah 20a. Significantly, his understanding of that passage differs from that of Rashi.
ט״זוְאִם עָמְדוּ הָעֵדִים בְּעֵדוּתָן וְנִמְצֵאת מְכֻוֶּנֶת וַהֲרֵי הָעֵדִים אֲנָשִׁים יְדוּעִים וּנְבוֹנִים וְנֶחְקְרָה הָעֵדוּת כָּרָאוּי. מְקַדְּשִׁין אוֹתוֹ וְחוֹזְרִין וּמוֹנִין לְאוֹתוֹ הַחֹדֶשׁ מִיּוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים הוֹאִיל וְנִרְאֶה הַיָּרֵחַ בְּלֵילוֹ:
16If the witnesses remain steadfast in their testimony, if it is compatible [according to the calculations of the court], if the witnesses are men whose character is well known, they are men of understanding, and if their testimony was scrutinized in a proper way - the moon is sanctified [retroactively]. We recalculate the dates of the month beginning from the thirtieth day [after the previous Rosh Chodesh], since the moon was sighted [on the appropriate] night.
י״זוְאִם הֻצְרְכוּ בֵּית דִּין לְהַנִּיחַ חֹדֶשׁ זֶה מְעֻבָּר כְּשֶׁהָיָה קֹדֶם שֶׁיָּבוֹאוּ הָעֵדִים אֵלּוּ מַנִּיחִין. וְזֶה הוּא שֶׁאָמְרוּ מְעַבְּרִין אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ לְצֹרֶךְ. וְיֵשׁ מִן הַחֲכָמִים הַגְּדוֹלִים מִי שֶׁחוֹלֵק בְּדָבָר זֶה וְאוֹמֵר לְעוֹלָם אֵין מְעַבְּרִין אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ לְצֹרֶךְ. הוֹאִיל וּבָאוּ עֵדִים מְקַדְּשִׁין וְאֵין מְאַיְּמִין עֲלֵיהֶן:
17If it was necessary for the court to leave the month full, as it was before the witnesses came, it is left as it is. This is what is meant by the statement,48Rosh HaShanah, op. cit. "The month is made full out of necessity49Note another interpretation of the expression, "The month is made full out of necessity," in Chapter 18, Halachah 11.." Some great Sages differ concerning this matter and maintain that the month is never made full out of necessity. Rather, if the witnesses come, the month is sanctified and they are not intimidated at all50This opinion is also mentioned in the above passage..
י״חיֵרָאֶה לִי שֶׁאֵין מַחֲלֹקֶת הַחֲכָמִים בְּדָבָר זֶה אֶלָּא בִּשְׁאָר הֶחֳדָשִׁים חוּץ מִן נִיסָן וְתִשְׁרֵי. אוֹ בְּעֵדֵי נִיסָן וְתִשְׁרֵי שֶׁבָּאוּ אַחַר שֶׁעָבְרוּ הָרְגָלִים. שֶׁכְּבָר נַעֲשָׂה מַה שֶּׁנַּעֲשָׂה וְעָבַר זְמַן הַקָּרְבָּנוֹת וּזְמַן הַמּוֹעֲדוֹת. אֲבָל אִם בָּאוּ הָעֵדִים בְּנִיסָן וְתִשְׁרֵי קֹדֶם חֲצִי הַחֹדֶשׁ מְקַבְּלִין עֵדוּתָן וְאֵין מְאַיְּמִין עֲלֵיהֶן כְּלָל. שֶׁאֵין מְאַיְּמִין עַל עֵדִים שֶׁהֵעִידוּ עַל הַחֹדֶשׁ שֶׁרָאוּהוּ בִּזְמַנּוֹ כְּדֵי לְעַבְּרוֹ:
18It appears to me51Generally, when the Rambam uses the expression "It appears to me" in the Mishneh Torah, he is introducing an original interpretation. In this instance, the resolution offered by the Rambam is also suggested by Abbaye in the above passage. Nevertheless, there is a certain justification for the use of the phrase, because there are other interpretations offered by the Talmud, and no conclusion is reached. Therefore, the Rambam's choice of the interpretation to follow was motivated by his own comprehension of the passage. that there is a difference of opinion among the Sages regarding this matter only in [the following circumstances]:a) The other months besides Nisan and Tishrei, orb) When witnesses come in Nisan and Tishrei after the holidays have passed, [all the festive practices] have already been observed, and the time to offer the sacrifices and observe the festivals has passed.When, however, the witnesses come in Tishrei and in Nisan before the middle of the month,52When Pesach and Sukkot are celebrated. One might ask why consideration was not given to the observance of Yom Kippur on the tenth of Tishrei.The Or Sameach offers the following resolution: Yom Kippur was observed for only one day in the outlying diaspora. The communities would assume that the moon had been sighted at its appropriate time, and they would observe Rosh HaShanah on the thirtieth day after Rosh Chodesh Elul, and Yom Kippur ten days afterwards. Thus, by accepting the witnesses' testimony, the court will have assured that a large portion of the Jewish people observed Yom Kippur on the proper date.Although this explanation has its advantages, it does not address itself to the observance of Yom Kippur in Eretz Yisrael, or to the sacrifices that had to be offered on that sacred day in the Temple. their testimony is accepted, and no attempt is made to intimidate them at all. For we do not attempt to intimidate witnesses who testify that they sighted at the appropriate time so that the month will be full.
י״טאֲבָל מְאַיְּמִין עַל עֵדִים שֶׁנִּתְקַלְקְלָה עֵדוּתָן וַהֲרֵי הַדָּבָר נוֹטֶה וּגְנַאי שֶׁלֹּא תִּתְקַיֵּם הָעֵדוּת וְיִתְעַבֵּר הַחֹדֶשׁ. מְאַיְּמִין עֲלֵיהֶן כְּדֵי שֶׁתִּתְקַיֵּם הָעֵדוּת וְיִתְקַיֵּם הַחֹדֶשׁ בִּזְמַנּוֹ. וְכֵן אִם בָּאוּ עֵדִים לְהָזִים אֶת הָעֵדִים שֶׁרָאוּהוּ בִּזְמַנּוֹ קֹדֶם שֶׁקִּדְּשׁוּהוּ בֵּית דִּין הֲרֵי אֵלּוּ מְאַיְּמִין עַל הַמְּזִימִין עַד שֶׁלֹּא תִּתְקַיֵּם הַהֲזָמָה וְיִתְקַדֵּשׁ הַחֹדֶשׁ בִּזְמַנּוֹ:
19We do, however, intimidate witnesses whose testimony has been disputed, and it appears that their testimony will not be upheld, and the month will be made full. We pressure them so that their testimony will be upheld and the month will be sanctified in its proper time. Similarly, when, before the new month has been sanctified, witnesses come to nullify53The Hebrew term used, lehazim, means to nullify their testimony by stating that, at the time they claimed to have seen the moon, they were in a different place from the place where they claimed to have sighted it. the testimony of the witnesses who saw the moon at its appropriate time, [the court] intimidates the witnesses who want to nullify the original testimony, so that the challenge will not be accepted and the new month will be sanctified at its appropriate time.54It would appear that, in both of the instances mentioned in this halachah, this law applies only when, according to the court's calculations, the moon should have been sighted on the thirtieth night.
ד׳
א׳שָׁנָּה מְעֻבֶּרֶת הִיא שָׁנָה שֶׁמּוֹסִיפִין בָּהּ חֹדֶשׁ. וְאֵין מוֹסִיפִין לְעוֹלָם אֶלָּא אֲדָר וְעוֹשִׂין אוֹתָהּ שָׁנָה שְׁנֵי אֲדָרִין אֲדָר רִאשׁוֹן וַאֲדָר שֵׁנִי. וּמִפְּנֵי מָה מוֹסִיפִין חֹדֶשׁ זֶה מִפְּנֵי זְמַן הָאָבִיב כְּדֵי שֶׁיְּהֵא הַפֶּסַח בְּאוֹתוֹ זְמַן שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (דברים טז א) "שָׁמוֹר אֶת חֹדֶשׁ הָאָבִיב" שֶׁיִּהְיֶה חֹדֶשׁ זֶה בִּזְמַן הָאָבִיב. וְלוּלֵא הוֹסָפַת הַחֹדֶשׁ הַזֶּה הַפֶּסַח בָּא פְּעָמִים בִּימוֹת הַחַמָּה וּפְעָמִים בִּימוֹת הַגְּשָׁמִים:
1A leap year is a year that includes an additional month.1This month is added to juxtapose the lunar calendar upon which the months are based, with the solar calendar, which governs the years.The extra month that is added is always Adar,2The Mechilta (commenting on Exodus 12:2 states that just as when a month is made full the addition is made at the end of the month, so too, when a year is made full the addition is made at the end. (The year is considered as beginning in Nisan and ending in Adar.) and thus the year contains two Adarin: the first Adar and the second Adar.3Based on Hilchot Nedarim 10:6, it appears that the Rambam considers the first Adar to be the additional month of the leap year. The Tur and the Ramah (Orach Chayim 427:1) differ and consider the second Adar to be the additional month.In practice, Purim is always celebrated in the second Adar (Hilchot Megillah 1:12). There is a difference of opinion with regard to whether to commemorate birthdays, yahrzeits, and the like that took place in Adar of an ordinary year in the first or the second Adar of a leap year. The accepted custom in the Ashkenazic community is to commemorate them in the first Adar of a leap year (Kitzur Shulchan Aruch 221:3).Why is this month added? Because of the season of spring, so that Pesach will fall then, as [implied by Deuteronomy 16:1]: "Take heed the month of spring"4Based on this verse, Rav Sa'adiah Gaon considers the adjustment of the yearly calendar to be a separate mitzvah. The Rambam, by contrast, considers it one dimension of the mitzvah of establishing the calendar. [This command can be interpreted to mean, "Take heed] that this month falls in the spring season. Were the month [of Adar] not to be added [from time to time], there are times when Pesach would fall in the summer, and times [when it would fall] in the rainy season.
ב׳עַל שְׁלֹשָׁה סִימָנִין מְעַבְּרִין אֶת הַשָּׁנָה. עַל הַתְּקוּפָה וְעַל הָאָבִיב וְעַל פֵּרוֹת הָאִילָן. כֵּיצַד. בֵּית דִּין מְחַשְּׁבִין וְיוֹדְעִין אִם תִּהְיֶה תְּקוּפַת נִיסָן בְּשִׁשָּׁה עָשָׂר בְּנִיסָן אוֹ אַחַר זְמַן זֶה מְעַבְּרִין אוֹתָהּ הַשָּׁנָה. וְיַעֲשׂוּ אוֹתוֹ נִיסָן אֲדָר שֵׁנִי כְּדֵי שֶׁיִּהְיֶה הַפֶּסַח בִּזְמַן הָאָבִיב. וְעַל סִימָן זֶה סוֹמְכִין וּמְעַבְּרִין וְאֵין חוֹשְׁשִׁין לְסִימָן אַחֵר:
2[An extra month is added,] making the year full, because of three factors: a) the vernal [spring] equinox;5In astronomical terms, the vernal equinox is defined as the entry of the sun into the constellation of Aries the ram (Chapter 9, Halachah 3). b) the ripening6We have translated the Hebrew word אביב as "ripening," as in Exodus 9:31. Because the agricultural cycle was so much an integral part of the calendar, the word אביב also means "spring" in Hebrew. [of the barley crop], and c) the blooming of the fruit trees.What is implied? When the court calculates7The calculations that the court would consider are outlined in Chapter 9. and determines that the vernal equinox will fall on the sixteenth of Nisan or later, the year is made full. The month that would have been Nisan is made the second Adar, and thus Pesach will fall in the spring. This factor [alone] is sufficient for the court to make the year full;8The Ra'avad (in his gloss on Halachah 16), the Ramah and others take issue with the Rambam on this point, maintaining that even when Pesach falls before the vernal equinox, another factor is necessary for a leap year to be declared. other factors need not be considered.
ג׳וְכֵן אִם רָאוּ בֵּית דִּין שֶׁעֲדַיִן לֹא הִגִּיעַ הָאָבִיב אֶלָּא עֲדַיִן אָפֵל הוּא. וְלֹא צָמְחוּ פֵּרוֹת הָאִילָן שֶׁדַּרְכָּן לִצְמֹחַ בִּזְמַן הַפֶּסַח. סוֹמְכִין עַל שְׁנֵי סִימָנִין אֵלּוּ וּמְעַבְּרִין אֶת הַשָּׁנָה. וְאַף עַל פִּי שֶׁהַתְּקוּפָה קֹדֶם לְשִׁשָּׁה עָשָׂר בְּנִיסָן הֲרֵי הֵן מְעַבְּרִין. כְּדֵי שֶׁיִּהְיֶה הָאָבִיב מָצוּי לְהַקְרִיב מִמֶּנּוּ עֹמֶר הַתְּנוּפָה בְּשִׁשָּׁה עָשָׂר בְּנִיסָן. וּכְדֵי שֶׁיִּהְיוּ הַפֵּרוֹת צוֹמְחִין כְּדֶרֶךְ כָּל זְמַן הָאָבִיב:
3Similarly, if the court sees that [the barley crop] has not ripened, but that it is late in sprouting, or that the fruit trees that usually bloom at the time of the Pesach holiday have not bloomed, these two factors are sufficient,9Both these factors are, however, necessary. Neither in their own right is sufficient. and the year is made full, even though the vernal equinox will fall before the sixteenth of Nisan.10Based on Sanhedrin 13a,b, the Ramah (cited in the gloss of the Kessef Mishneh on Halachah 15) notes that our Sages required that the festival of Sukkot occur after the autumnal equinox. If the vernal equinox falls on the fifteenth of Nisan, it is possible that the autumnal equinox will not take place until the twenty-first of Tishrei, six days after Sukkot begins.Several different perspectives are offered to resolve this point. Among them: The Or Sameach maintains that the Rambam's text originally contained a reference to the autumnal equinox, and it was omitted by the later printers. Aruch HaShulchan, by contrast, maintains that, according to the Rambam, the entire discussion in Sanhedrin is not accepted as halachah. We are not at all concerned with the autumnal equinox; all that is significant is that Pesach fall after the vernal equinox.[The reason the year is] made full [because of these factors] is so that there will be [an abundant quantity] of ripened [barley] accessible, so that the wave offering of the omer can be brought from it on the sixteenth of Nisan,11See Leviticus 23:9-14; Hilchot Temidim UMusafim 7:3. and so that the fruits will bloom, as they always do in the spring.
ד׳וְעַל שָׁלֹשׁ אֲרָצוֹת הָיוּ סוֹמְכִין בָּאָבִיב. עַל אֶרֶץ יְהוּדָה וְעַל עֵבֶר הַיַּרְדֵּן וְעַל הַגָּלִיל. וְאִם הִגִּיעַ הָאָבִיב בִּשְׁתֵּי אֲרָצוֹת מֵאֵלּוּ וּבְאַחַת לֹא הִגִּיעַ אֵין מְעַבְּרִין. וְאִם הִגִּיעַ בְּאַחַת מֵהֶן וְלֹא הִגִּיעַ בִּשְׁתַּיִם מְעַבְּרִין אִם עֲדַיִן לֹא צָמְחוּ פֵּרוֹת הָאִילָן. וְאִלּוּ הֵן הַדְּבָרִים שֶׁהֵן הָעִקָּר שֶׁמְּעַבְּרִין בִּשְׁבִילָן כְּדֵי שֶׁיִּהְיוּ הַשָּׁנִים שְׁנֵי חַמָּה:
4There are three territories that are of consequence regarding the ripening [of the barley]: Judea, Transjordan, and the Galilee. If [the barley] ripened in two of these lands, but not in the third, the year is not made full.12The climates of these lands are different, and it is possible that the barley will have ripened in one land, but not in the others. If, however, [the barley] ripened in one of these lands, but not in the other two, the year is made full if the fruit trees have not bloomed.These are the primary grounds for making the year full, so that the years will follow the solar calendar.13As opposed to the factors mentioned in the following halachot.
ה׳וְיֵשׁ שָׁם דְּבָרִים אֲחֵרִים שֶׁהָיוּ בֵּית דִּין מְעַבְּרִין בִּשְׁבִילָן מִפְּנֵי הַצֹּרֶךְ. וְאֵלּוּ הֵן. מִפְּנֵי הַדְּרָכִים שֶׁאֵינָן מְתֻקָּנִין וְאֵין הָעָם יְכוֹלִין לַעֲלוֹת מְעַבְּרִין אֶת הַשָּׁנָה עַד שֶׁיִּפָּסְקוּ הַגְּשָׁמִים וִיתַקְּנוּ הַדְּרָכִים. וּמִפְּנֵי הַגְּשָׁרִים שֶׁנֶּהֶרְסוּ וְנִמְצְאוּ הַנְּהָרוֹת מַפְסִיקִין וּמוֹנְעִין אֶת הָעָם וּמִסְתַּכְּנִין בְּעַצְמָן וּמֵתִים מְעַבְּרִין אֶת הַשָּׁנָה עַד שֶׁיְּתַקְּנוּ הַגְּשָׁרִים. וּמִפְּנֵי תַּנּוּרֵי פְּסָחִים שֶׁאָבְדוּ בַּגְּשָׁמִים וְאֵין לָהֶם מָקוֹם לִצְלוֹת אֶת פִּסְחֵיהֶם מְעַבְּרִין אֶת הַשָּׁנָה עַד שֶׁיִּבָּנוּ הַתַּנּוּרִים וְיִיבְשׁוּ. וּמִפְּנֵי גָּלֻיּוֹת יִשְׂרָאֵל שֶׁנֶּעֶקְרוּ מִמְּקוֹמָן וַעֲדַיִן לֹא הִגִּיעוּ לִירוּשָׁלַיִם מְעַבְּרִין אֶת הַשָּׁנָה כְּדֵי שֶׁיִּהְיֶה לָהֶם פְּנַאי לְהַגִּיעַ:
5There are other factors for which the court makes [the year full] in the case of necessity.14I.e., these factors are not associated with the juxtaposition of the lunar and solar calendars, but rather related to the celebration of the pilgrimage festival of Pesach in a complete manner. Among them: that the roads are not suitable,15Because they were damaged by the rains. and it is impossible for the people to make the pilgrimage. [In such an instance,] the year is made full, [to allow time for] the rains to stop and the roads to be fixed.That the bridges have been destroyed and there are rivers interrupting [the roads], and preventing the people [from continuing their journey]. The year is made full, so that the bridges can be fixed, lest the people endanger themselves and die.That the ovens for the Paschal sacrifice were destroyed by the rains,16The ovens were earthenware, and could be damaged by substantial rains. and thus there will be no place for [the people] to roast their Paschal offerings. We therefore make the year full, so that the ovens can be built and can dry [in the sun].That Jews from the diaspora who have left their homes have not arrived in Jerusalem. We make the year full, so that they will have the time to reach [Jerusalem].17The Jerusalem Talmud (Sanhedrin 1:2) states that an effort should be made to enable the entire Jewish people to celebrate the pilgrimage festivals in Jerusalem.
ו׳אֲבָל אֵין מְעַבְּרִין אֶת הַשָּׁנָה לֹא מִפְּנֵי הַשֶּׁלֶג וְלֹא מִפְּנֵי הַצִּנָּה וְלֹא מִפְּנֵי גָּלֻיּוֹת יִשְׂרָאֵל שֶׁעֲדַיִן לֹא נֶעֶקְרוּ מִמְּקוֹמָם. וְלֹא מִפְּנֵי הַטֻּמְאָה. כְּגוֹן שֶׁהָיוּ רֹב הַקָּהָל אוֹ רֹב הַכֹּהֲנִים טְמֵאִים אֵין מְעַבְּרִין אֶת הַשָּׁנָה כְּדֵי שֶׁיִּהְיֶה לָהֶם פְּנַאי לִטַּהֵר וְיַעֲשׂוּ בְּטָהֳרָה אֶלָּא יַעֲשׂוּ בְּטֻמְאָה. וְאִם עִבְּרוּ אֶת הַשָּׁנָה מִפְּנֵי הַטֻּמְאָה הֲרֵי זוֹ מְעֻבֶּרֶת:
6We do not, however, make the year full because of snow, nor because of a cold climate,18Rashi, Sanhedrin 12a, writes that these factors will make the people's journey to Jerusalem uncomfortable, but will not prevent them from making the journey. nor because of Jews from the diaspora who have not yet left their homes.[Similarly, the year is not made full] because of ritual impurity - e.g., when most of the people or most of the priests are impure.19In his commentary on the tractate of Sanhedrin (one of the few tractates of the Gemara on which the Rambam wrote a commentary), the Rambam quotes Rav Hai Gaon as explaining that this instance refers to a situation in which the people were impure because of contact with a human corpse, and no ashes from the red heifer remained to purify them. One might think that the year should be made full to enable the priests enough time to offer a new red heifer and prepare ashes. Therefore, our Sages feel it necessary to explain that this measure is not taken, and in this instance the Paschal sacrifice should be offered by a priest in a state of ritual impurity. The year is not made full so that they will be able to purify themselves and offer [the Paschal sacrifice] in a state of ritual purity.20On the one hand, an individual who is ritually impure may not offer the Paschal sacrifice at its appropriate time, but instead should offer it a month later, on Pesach Sheni. On the other hand, when the majority of the Jewish people, or the majority of the priests, are impure, the sacrifice should be offered in a state of ritual impurity. (See Hilchot Korban Pesach 7:1; Hilchot Bi'at HaMikdash 4:16.) Instead, they should offer [the sacrifice] while ritually impure. Nevertheless, if the year has been made full because of ritual impurity, it may be left full.
ז׳יֵשׁ דְּבָרִים שֶׁאֵין מְעַבְּרִין בִּשְׁבִילָן כְּלָל אֲבָל עוֹשִׂין אוֹתָן סַעַד לְשָׁנָה שֶׁצְּרִיכָה עִבּוּר מִפְּנֵי הַתְּקוּפָה אוֹ מִפְּנֵי הָאָבִיב וּפֵרוֹת הָאִילָן. וְאֵלּוּ הֵן. מִפְּנֵי הַגְּדָיִים וְהַטְּלָאִים שֶׁעֲדַיִן לֹא נוֹלְדוּ אוֹ שֶׁהֵן מְעַט. ומִפְּנֵי הַגּוֹזָלוֹת שֶׁלֹּא פָּרְחוּ. אֵין מְעַבְּרִין בִּשְׁבִיל אֵלּוּ כְּדֵי שֶׁיִּהְיוּ הַגְּדָיִים וְהַטְּלָאִים מְצוּיִין לִפְסָחִים וְהַגּוֹזָלוֹת מְצוּיִין לִרְאִיָּה אוֹ לְמִי שֶׁנִּתְחַיֵּב בְּקָרְבַּן הָעוֹף. אֲבָל עוֹשִׂין אוֹתָן סַעַד לְשָׁנָה:
7There are factors that, in and of themselves, are never sufficient cause to make the year full. They are, however, mentioned as contributing factors when a year must be made full so that [Pesach will fall after] the vernal equinox, because of [the barley that has not] ripened, or the fruit trees.These factors are: That young goats or lambs have not been born, or are merely few in number, or that young doves have not [matured to the point where they can] fly.We do not make the year full so that the goats and the lambs will be available for the Paschal sacrifices, and the doves will be available for the pilgrimage sacrifice,21Our Sages interpret Deuteronomy 16:16, "You shall not appear before God empty-handed," as obligating a person to bring an olah ("burnt") offering on the pilgrimage festivals. The Rambam maintains that doves could be brought for these offerings. (See Hilchot Chaggigah 1:1.) Other authorities differ, as explained in the commentaries on that halachah. or for those individuals22E.g., a woman who gives birth (Leviticus 12:8 , zavim (Leviticus 15:14 , and zavot (Leviticus 15:29 . It was customary for people living far from Jerusalem to delay offering the sacrifices they were obligated to bring until the pilgrimage festivals. who are obligated to bring doves as a sacrifice. Nevertheless, these are mentioned as contributing factors [to make] the year [full].
ח׳כֵּיצַד עוֹשִׂין אוֹתָן סַעַד לְשָׁנָה. אוֹמְרִין שָׁנָה זוֹ צְרִיכָה עִבּוּר מִפְּנֵי הַתְּקוּפָה שֶׁמָּשְׁכָה אוֹ מִפְּנֵי הָאָבִיב וּפֵרוֹת הָאִילָן שֶׁלֹּא הִגִּיעוּ וְעוֹד שֶׁהַגְּדָיִים קְטַנִּים וְהַגּוֹזָלוֹת רַכִּים:
8What does mentioning them as contributing factors [to make] the year [full] imply? The court says: "This year must be made full because the equinox falls late, or because [the barley] has not ripened and the fruit trees have not bloomed,23By mentioning both factors (the barley and the fruit trees), the Rambam indicates that he does not follow the perspective suggested by Rashi (Sanhedrin 11a), which states that the lack of lambs or doves coupled with either a delay in the ripening of the barley or the blooming of the fruit trees is sufficient cause to make the year full. and also because the young goats are small and the doves are frail."
ט׳אֵין מְעַבְּרִין אֶת הַשָּׁנָה אֶלָּא בִּמְזֻמָּנִין לָהּ. כֵּיצַד. יֹאמַר רֹאשׁ בֵּית דִּין הַגָּדוֹל לִפְלוֹנִי וּפְלוֹנִי מִן הַסַּנְהֶדְרִין הֱיוּ מְזֻמָּנִין לְמָקוֹם פְּלוֹנִי שֶׁנְּחַשֵּׁב וְנִרְאֶה וְנֵדַע אִם שָׁנָה זוֹ צְרִיכָה עִבּוּר אוֹ אֵינָהּ צְרִיכָה. וְאוֹתָן שֶׁהֻזְמְנוּ בִּלְבַד הֵן שֶׁמְּעַבְּרִין אוֹתָהּ. וּבְכַמָּה מְעַבְּרִין אוֹתָהּ. מַתְחִילִין בִּשְׁלֹשָׁה דַּיָּנִין מִכְּלַל סַנְהֶדְרֵי גְּדוֹלָה מִמִּי שֶּׁסָּמְכוּ אוֹתָן. אָמְרוּ שְׁנַיִם לֹא נֵשֵׁב וְלֹא נִרְאֶה אִם צְרִיכָה עִבּוּר אִם לָאו וְאֶחָד אָמַר נֵשֵׁב וְנִבְדֹּק. בָּטֵל יָחִיד בְּמִעוּטוֹ. אָמְרוּ שְׁנַיִם נֵשֵׁב וְנִרְאֶה וְאֶחָד אוֹמֵר לֹא נֵשֵׁב. מוֹסִיפִין עוֹד שְׁנַיִם מִן הַמְזֻמָּנִים וְנוֹשְׂאִים וְנוֹתְנִין בַּדָּבָר:
9The year can be made full only by [judges] who were invited [to participate in the deliberations].24See Sanhedrin 11a, which relates that Rabban Gamliel once invited seven members of the Sanhedrin to participate in the deliberations regarding whether or not to make a year full. He requested that they meet him in the loft of the court early the following morning. When an additional member of the court came, Rabban Gamliel protested and taught the Sages this halachah. What is implied? The head of the High Court25For a leap year can be declared only by the High Court, or by a court deputized by the High Court (Chapter 5, Halachah 1). tells [several] members of the court, "Be present at a particular place, where we will make calculations and decide whether or not it is necessary to make the year full" It is only those who were invited who [have the authority to] make [the year] full.How many [judges participate in the deliberations whether] to declare a leap year? We begin with three judges from the High Court who have received semichah. Should two [of these judges] say, "There is no need to sit to decide whether or not [the year] should be made full" [their opinion is accepted]. [Although] one [judge] says that they should continue their deliberations, his statements are of no consequence.If two [of these judges] say, "There is a need to sit [further] to decide whether or not it is necessary to make [the year] full" and the other [judge] says that they should not continue their deliberations, we add two of the judges who had been invited previously, and the discussion of the matter [is continued].
י׳שְׁנַיִם אוֹמְרִים צְרִיכָה עִבּוּר וּשְׁלֹשָׁה אוֹמְרִין אֵינָהּ צְרִיכָה. בָּטְלוּ שְׁנַיִם בְּמִעוּטָן. שְׁלֹשָׁה אוֹמְרִין צְרִיכָה עִבּוּר וּשְׁנַיִם אוֹמְרִין אֵינָהּ צְרִיכָה עִבּוּר. מוֹסִיפִין שְׁנַיִם מִן הַמְזֻמָּנִין לָהּ וְנוֹשְׂאִין וְנוֹתְנִין וְגוֹמְרִין בְּשִׁבְעָה. אִם גָּמְרוּ כֻּלָּם לְעַבֵּר אוֹ שֶׁלֹּא לְעַבֵּר עוֹשִׂין כְּמוֹ שֶׁגָּמְרוּ. וְאִם נֶחְלְקוּ הוֹלְכִים אַחַר הָרֹב בֵּין לְעַבֵּר בֵּין שֶׁלֹּא לְעַבֵּר. וְצָרִיךְ שֶׁיְּהֵא רֹאשׁ בֵּית דִּין הַגָּדוֹל שֶׁהוּא רֹאשׁ יְשִׁיבָה שֶׁל אֶחָד וְשִׁבְעִים מִכְּלַל הַשִּׁבְעָה. וְאִם גָּמְרוּ בִּשְׁלֹשָׁה לְעַבֵּר הֲרֵי זוֹ מְעֻבֶּרֶת וְהוּא שֶׁיְּהֵא הַנָּשִׂיא עִמָּהֶן אוֹ שֶׁיִּרְצֶה. וּבְעִבּוּר הַשָּׁנָה מַתְחִילִין מִן הַצַּד. וּלְקִדּוּשׁ הַחֹדֶשׁ מַתְחִילִין מִן הַגָּדוֹל:
10Should two [judges] say that it is necessary to make [the year] full, and three say that there is no necessity, [the opinion of] the two is of no consequence. If three [judges] say that it is necessary to make [the year] full, and two say that there is no necessity, two more [judges] who were invited are added to the court, and the subject is debated.These seven [judges should] arrive at a conclusion. If they all agree to make the year full, or not to make the year full, their decision is followed. If there is a difference of opinion among them, we follow the majority, whether to make the year full, or not to make the year full.It is necessary that the head of the High Court - i.e., the one who presides over the seventy-one [judges of the Sanhedrin] - be one of these seven. If [the three original judges] conclude26When there are fewer than seven judges in the court, a leap year is instituted only when the decision to do so is unanimous. Only when the court is expanded to include seven judges is a majority ruling accepted as binding (Rabbenu Chananel, Sanhedrin 10b). that it is necessary for the year to be made full, it should be made full, provided the nasi27I.e., the head of the court. is among the three, or consents [to their ruling].Concerning the institution of a leap year, the opinions of the lesser judges should be offered first.28Lest the lesser judges be intimidated after hearing the decision of the head of the court, and refrain from expressing their own opinion. Concerning the sanctification of the new month, we begin from the head of the court.29For the matter is more of a formality; the head of the court merely pronounces the month as sanctified.
י״אאֵין מוֹשִׁיבִין לְעִבּוּר הַשָּׁנָה לֹא מֶלֶךְ וְלֹא כֹּהֵן גָּדוֹל. מֶלֶךְ מִפְּנֵי חֵילוֹתָיו וּמִלְחֲמוֹתָיו שֶׁמָּא דַּעְתּוֹ נוֹטָה בִּשְׁבִילָן לְעַבֵּר אוֹ שֶׁלֹּא לְעַבֵּר. וְכֹהֵן גָּדוֹל מִפְּנֵי הַצִּנָּה שֶׁמָּא לֹא תִּהְיֶה דַּעְתּוֹ נוֹטָה לְעַבֵּר כְּדֵי שֶׁלֹּא יָבֹא תִּשְׁרֵי בִּימֵי הַקֹּר וְהוּא טוֹבֵל בְּיוֹם הַכִּפּוּרִים חָמֵשׁ טְבִילוֹת:
11Neither a king30Based on this ruling, Rabbi Akiva Eiger questions why King Chizkiyah was able to institute a leap year, as related in Pesachim 4:10. nor a High Priest should be [included in the group entrusted with deciding] whether or not to institute a leap year. A king [should not be included, lest he be influenced] by consideration for his soldiers and his wars.31Rashi (Sanhedrin 18b) states that the king would pay his soldiers a yearly salary, and therefore, by instituting an extra month, he would gain.The B'nei Binyamin explains that there is also a reason for a king to desire to refrain from instituting an extra month. Bridegrooms, those who have built new homes, and those who have planted vineyards are freed from army service for a year. If a leap year is instituted, they benefit. Therefore, if a sizable portion of the population fell into these categories, and men were required for the army, it would be preferable for the king not to institute a leap year.A High Priest should not be included because of the cold - i.e., he may choose not to institute a leap year so that Tishrei will not fall in the winter, and he would [thereby not] have to immerse himself five times on Yom Kippur [in such weather].
י״בהָיָה רֹאשׁ בֵּית דִּין הַגָּדוֹל וְהוּא הַנִּקְרָא נָשִׂיא בְּדֶרֶךְ רְחוֹקָה אֵין מְעַבְּרִין אוֹתָהּ אֶלָּא עַל תְּנַאי אִם יִרְצֶה הַנָּשִׂיא. בָּא וְרָצָה הֲרֵי זוֹ מְעֻבֶּרֶת. לֹא רָצָה אֵינָהּ מְעֻבֶּרֶת. וְאֵין מְעַבְּרִין אֶת הַשָּׁנָה אֶלָּא בְּאֶרֶץ יְהוּדָה שֶׁהַשְּׁכִינָה בְּתוֹכָהּ שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (דברים יב ה) "לְשִׁכְנוֹ תִדְרְשׁוּ". וְאִם עִבְּרוּהָ בַּגָּלִיל מְעֻבֶּרֶת. וְאֵין מְעַבְּרִין אֶלָּא בַּיּוֹם. וְאִם עִבְּרוּהָ בַּלַּיְלָה אֵינָהּ מְעֻבֶּרֶת:
12If the head of the High Court, the nasi, was on a distant journey, [the court] may institute a leap year only with the proviso that the nasi will consent. If the nasi comes and consents, the year is full. If he does not consent, it is not full.A leap year may be instituted only in the territory of Judea, for the resting place of the Divine Presence32I.e., the Temple in Jerusalem. Curiously, however, it does not appear that the Rambam requires the proceedings to be carried out in the Temple, or even in Jerusalem. is there, as [implied by Deuteronomy 12:5]: "And you shall seek out his dwelling" If a leap year is instituted in the Galilee, the year remains full.A year should be made full only during the day.33Sanhedrin 11b states that there is an equation between the institution of a leap year and the sanctification of the new moon. As mentioned in Chapter 2, Halachah 8, the new moon can be sanctified only during the day.Based on the equation between these two practices, the Minchat Chinuch (Mitzvah 4) questions the law mentioned previously: Why may the moon be sanctified throughout Eretz Yisrael (Chapter 1, Halachah 8) if a leap year may be instituted only in the territory of Judea? If it is made full during the night, it is not full.
י״גיֵשׁ לְבֵית דִּין לְחַשֵּׁב וְלִקְבֹּעַ וְלֵידַע אֵי זוֹ שָׁנָה תִּהְיֶה מְעֻבֶּרֶת בְּכָל עֵת שֶׁיִּרְצֶה אֲפִלּוּ לְכַמָּה שָׁנִים. אֲבָל אֵין אוֹמְרִין שָׁנָה פְּלוֹנִית מְעֻבֶּרֶת אֶלָּא אַחַר רֹאשׁ הַשָּׁנָה הוּא שֶׁאוֹמֵר שָׁנָה זוֹ מְעֻבֶּרֶת. וְדָבָר זֶה מִפְּנֵי הַדְּחָק אֲבָל שֶׁלֹּא בִּשְׁעַת הַדְּחָק אֵין מוֹדִיעִין שֶׁהִיא מְעֻבֶּרֶת אֶלָּא בַּאֲדָר הוּא שֶׁאוֹמֵר שָׁנָה זוֹ מְעֻבֶּרֶת וְחֹדֶשׁ הַבָּא אֵינוֹ נִיסָן אֶלָּא אֲדָר שֵׁנִי. אָמְרוּ לִפְנֵי רֹאשׁ הַשָּׁנָה שָׁנָה זוֹ שֶׁתִּכָּנֵס מְעֻבֶּרֶת אֵינָהּ מְעֻבֶּרֶת בַּאֲמִירָה זוֹ:
13The court has the authority to calculate, institute, and decide which year(s) shall be full whenever it desires, even several years in advance.34Sanhedrin 12a relates that once, when Rabbi Akiva was imprisoned by the Romans, he instituted three leap years for the future. Nevertheless, a particular year is not declared a full year until after Rosh Hashanah, at which time a public statement [can be] made [to the effect that] the year has been made full.35Shorshei HaYam cites the fact that the year can be declared a leap year well in advance, as support for the Rambam's thesis (Halachah 2) that the fact that Pesach would be celebrated before the vernal equinox is, by itself, sufficient cause to declare a leap year. At the beginning of the year, it is impossible to know the state of the barley harvest, or the fruit trees.[A leap year is announced at such an early date] only in a pressing situation.36Rashi (Sanhedrin, ibid.) relates that this refers to a situation when it was feared that the Romans would prevent the leap year from being instituted if the court waited for the usual time.Note the Minchat Chinuch (Mitzvah 4), which explains that an early declaration should be made only in a pressing situation. The court may, however, calculate months and even years in advance, even in cases where the situation is not pressing. If the situation is not pressing, the announcement that a leap year has been instituted is not made until the month of Adar. [At that time, the court announces,] "This year is a leap year, and the following month is not Nisan, but rather the second Adar" If a court announces before Rosh HaShanah, "The year to come will be a leap year" this announcement does not make the year a leap year.
י״דהִגִּיעַ יוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים בַּאֲדָר וְלֹא עִבְּרוּ עֲדַיִן הַשָּׁנָה לֹא יְעַבְּרוּ אוֹתָהּ כְּלָל. שֶׁאוֹתוֹ הַיּוֹם רָאוּי לִהְיוֹת רֹאשׁ חֹדֶשׁ נִיסָן וּמִשֶּׁיִּכָּנֵס נִיסָן וְלֹא עִבְּרוּ אֵינָן יְכוֹלִים לְעַבֵּר. וְאִם עִבְּרוּהָ בְּיוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים שֶׁל אֲדָר הֲרֵי זוֹ מְעֻבֶּרֶת. בָּאוּ עֵדִים אַחַר שֶׁעִבְּרוּ וְהֵעִידוּ עַל הַיָּרֵחַ הֲרֵי אֵלּוּ מְקַדְּשִׁין אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ בְּיוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים וְיִהְיֶה רֹאשׁ חֹדֶשׁ אֲדָר שֵׁנִי. וְאִלּוּ קִדְּשׁוּהוּ קֹדֶם שֶׁיְּעַבְּרוּ אֶת הַשָּׁנָה שׁוּב לֹא הָיוּ מְעַבְּרִין שֶׁאֵין מְעַבְּרִין בְּנִיסָן:
14If the thirtieth day of Adar arrived without the year having been declared a leap year, it should never be made a leap year.37I.e., although, as the Rambam continues, if they instituted a leap year on this date their ruling would be binding, at the outset they should not take such a step.Pesachim 4:10 relates that declaring a leap year on this date was one of the three acts performed by King Chizkiyah that did not find favor in the eyes of the Sages. For that date is fit to be Rosh Chodesh Nisan, and once Nisan begins without the year having been declared a leap year, [the court] no longer has that option. If, however, they declared a leap year on the thirtieth of Adar, their ruling is binding.If witnesses came after the leap year had been declared and testified regarding [the sighting of] the moon, the court sanctifies the new month on the thirtieth day, and makes it the Rosh Chodesh of the second Adar.38Retroactively, it appears that the thirtieth day was fit to be Rosh Chodesh Nisan, and therefore the institution of the leap year would not have been effective. Nevertheless, since in actual fact, the declaration of the leap year preceded the sanctification of the new month, it is effective. If they had sanctified the new month on the thirtieth day before they declared a leap year, they would not have been able to declare the leap year. For a leap year may not be declared in Nisan.
ט״ואֵין מְעַבְּרִין אֶת הַשָּׁנָה בִּשְׁנַת רְעָבוֹן שֶׁהַכּל רָצִים לְבַיִת הַגְּרָנוֹת לֶאֱכל וְלִחְיוֹת וְאִי אֶפְשָׁר לְהוֹסִיף לָהֶן זְמַן לֶאֱסֹר הֶחָדָשׁ. וְאֵין מְעַבְּרִין בִּשְׁבִיעִית שֶׁיַּד הַכּל שׁוֹלֶטֶת עַל הַסְּפִיחִין וְלֹא יִמְצְאוּ לְקַּרֵב הָעֹמֶר וּשְׁתֵּי הַלֶּחֶם. וּרְגִילִין הָיוּ לְעַבֵּר בְּעֶרֶב שְׁבִיעִית:
15A leap year may not be declared in a year of famine39Sanhedrin 12a credits Elisha the prophet with the institution of this prohibition. when everyone is hurrying to the granaries to partake [of the new year's harvest] and derive vitality. [In such a situation,] it is impossible to prolong the time when the prohibition against eating from the new harvest [is in effect].40The prohibition of chadash prevents one from partaking of grain from the new harvest until the offering of the omer of barley on the sixteenth of Nisan (Hilchot Ma'achalot Asurot 10:2-5). When the previous year has been plagued with famine, it is undesirable to keep this prohibition in effect any longer than necessary.We do not declare the Sabbatical year41The Rambam follows the opinion in Sanhedrin (loc. cit.), which forbids instituting a leap year only in the Sabbatical year. Another opinion forbids instituting a leap year in the year following the Sabbatical year. a leap year, because everyone is entitled to take the crops that grow on their own.42Our translation follows the commentary of the Perush, which explains that according to the Torah, all agricultural labor is forbidden in the Sabbatical year. It is, nevertheless, permitted to take crops that grow from seeds strewn by the wind or that grow from other causes that did not result from conscious human labor. Although our Sages forbade benefitting from such crops for personal use, it was from these crops that the grain used for the omer offering and the two loaves of bread were harvested.The Sages forbade using these crops for personal use. Nevertheless, since the prohibition did not originate in the Torah, our Sages feared that it would not be observed by the common people and the crops would not remain for these sacrifices.Significantly, Rashi and others offer a second rationale for this practice, that our Sages did not want to prolong a year when it was forbidden to do agricultural work. Therefore, grain will not be available to offer the omer [of barley] and the two loaves of bread [offered on Shavuot].43See Leviticus 23:17. As the verse states, this offering and the omer must be from the harvest of the new year. It was customary to make the year preceding the Sabbatical year a leap year.44So that the farmers would have an extra month to work the land and gather its crops (Rashi, Sanhedrin, loc. cit.).
ט״זיֵרָאֶה לִי שֶׁזֶּה שֶׁאָמְרוּ חֲכָמִים אֵין מְעַבְּרִין בִּשְׁנַת רְעָבוֹן וּבִשְׁבִיעִית. שֶׁלֹּא יְעַבְּרוּ בָּהֶם מִפְּנֵי צֹרֶךְ הַדְּרָכִים וְהַגְּשָׁרִים וְכַיּוֹצֵא בָּהֶם. אֲבָל אִם הָיְתָה הַשָּׁנָה רְאוּיָה לְהִתְעַבֵּר מִפְּנֵי הַתְּקוּפָה אוֹ מִפְּנֵי הָאָבִיב וּפֵרוֹת הָאִילָן מְעַבְּרִין לְעוֹלָם בְּכָל זְמַן:
16It appears to me45This expression indicates a ruling that the Rambam derives from his own logic without an explicit source in the works of our Sages. The Or Sameach cites a passage (Sanhedrin 26a), which appears to indicate that it is impossible to declare a Sabbatical year a leap year. There are, however, other interpretations of that passage. (See Tosafot, loc. cit..) that our Sages' statement that a leap year should not be declared in a year of famine and in the Sabbatical year means that a leap year should not be declared because of the condition of the roads or the bridges, or because of factors of this nature. If, however, it is appropriate to declare a leap year because [Pesach will fall before] the vernal equinox, because [the barley has not] ripened, or because the fruit trees [have not bloomed], a leap year is declared always.46It appears that the Rambam's logic is that since according to the Torah, it is necessary to declare a leap year under such circumstances, the leap year should be declared. There is no obligation from the Torah to declare a leap year, because of problems with the roads or because of the other circumstances mentioned in Halachah 5. The Sages prescribed ordaining a leap year in these circumstances out of consideration for the people. In a Sabbatical year or a year of famine, the considerations mentioned in the previous halachah override those that would ordinarily require the year to be declared a leap year.Significantly, the Ra'avad, the Ramah, and others do not accept the distinction made by the Rambam, and maintain that a Sabbatical year and a year of famine should never be declared leap years.
י״זכְּשֶׁמְּעַבְּרִין בֵּית דִּין אֶת הַשָּׁנָה כּוֹתְבִין אִגְּרוֹת לְכָל הַמְּקוֹמוֹת הָרְחוֹקִים וּמוֹדִיעִים אוֹתָן שֶׁעִבְּרוּהָ וּמִפְּנֵי מָה עִבְּרוּ. וְעַל לְשׁוֹן הַנָּשִׂיא נִכְתָּבוֹת. וְאוֹמֵר לָהֶן יוֹדֵעַ לָכֶם שֶׁהִסְכַּמְתִּי אֲנִי וַחֲבֵרַי וְהוֹסַפְנוּ עַל שָׁנָה זוֹ כָּךְ וְכָךְ. רָצוּ תִּשְׁעָה וְעֶשְׂרִים יוֹם רָצוּ שְׁלֹשִׁים יוֹם. שֶׁחֹדֶשׁ הָעִבּוּר הָרְשׁוּת לְבֵית דִּין לְהוֹסִיפוֹ מָלֵא אוֹ חָסֵר לָאֲנָשִׁים הָרְחוֹקִים שֶׁמּוֹדִיעִין אוֹתָם. אֲבָל הֵם לְפִי הָרְאִיָּה הֵם עוֹשִׂים אִם מָלֵא אִם חָסֵר:
17When the court institutes a leap year, they write a letter to all [the people in] distant places, notifying them that a leap year has been instituted, and the reason for which it was instituted.These letters were written in the name of the nasi.47The Rambam's statement is based on the narrative in Sanhedrin 11b, which relates that Rabban Gamliel sent letters to Jews throughout the diaspora notifying them of the declaration of a leap year. They would say, "Let it be known that I and my colleagues have agreed to add to this year this many days" - for it was possible for them to declare a month of twenty-nine days or a month of thirty days.[The intent is that] the court had the option of notifying the people in the outlying areas that the month would [probably] be either full or lacking.48Since through calculations, it is possible to know whether or not it is likely for the moon to be sighted on the thirtieth night, the court would notify the people in the outlying areas accordingly. This notification would, however, be conditional on the actual sighting of the moon. [In fact, however,] the determination of whether the month is full or lacking is dependent on the sighting of the moon.
ה׳
א׳כָּל מַה שֶּׁאָמַרְנוּ מִקְּבִיעוֹת רֹאשׁ חֹדֶשׁ עַל הָרְאִיָּה וְעִבּוּר הַשָּׁנָה מִפְּנֵי הַזְּמַן אוֹ מִפְּנֵי הַצֹּרֶךְ. אֵין עוֹשִׂין אוֹתוֹ אֶלָּא סַנְהֶדְרִין שֶׁבְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל אוֹ בֵּית דִּין הַסְּמוּכִים בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל שֶׁנָּתְנוּ לָהֶן הַסַּנְהֶדְרִין רְשׁוּת. שֶׁכָּךְ נֶאֱמַר לְמשֶׁה וּלְאַהֲרֹן (שמות יב ב) "הַחֹדֶשׁ הַזֶּה לָכֶם רֹאשׁ חֳדָשִׁים" וּמִפִּי הַשְּׁמוּעָה לָמְדוּ אִישׁ מֵאִישׁ מִמּשֶׁה רַבֵּנוּ שֶׁכָּךְ הוּא פֵּרוּשׁ הַדָּבָר עֵדוּת זוֹ תִּהְיֶה מְסוּרָה לָכֶם וּלְכָל הָעוֹמֵד אַחֲרֵיכֶם בִּמְקוֹמְכֶם. אֲבָל בִּזְמַן שֶׁאֵין שָׁם סַנְהֶדְרִין בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל אֵין קוֹבְעִין חֳדָשִׁים וְאֵין מְעַבְּרִין שָׁנִים אֶלָּא בְּחֶשְׁבּוֹן זֶה שֶׁאָנוּ מְחַשְּׁבִין בּוֹ הַיּוֹם:
1All the statements made previously regarding the [prerogative to] sanctify Rosh Chodesh because of the sighting of the moon, and [to] establish a leap year to reconcile the calendar or because of a necessity, apply to the Sanhedrin in Eretz Yisrael. [For it is they] alone, or a court of judges possessing semichah that holds sessions in Eretz Yisrael and that was granted authority by the Sanhedrin, [who may authorize these decisions].1The Ramban [in his gloss on Sefer HaMitzvot (Positive Commandment 153)] differs and explains that although it was necessary for the judges who established the calendar to have semichah, there was no necessity that this function be carried out by the Sanhedrin or a court deputized by it.[This concept is derived] from the command given Moses and Aaron [Exodus 12:2]: "This month shall be for you the first of months" The Oral Tradition as passed down, teacher to student, from Moses our teacher [throughout the generations, explains that] the verse is interpreted as follows:2This explanation was recorded for posterity in Rosh HaShanah 21b. This testimony is entrusted to you and those [sages] who arise after you and who function in your position.3I.e., to the Sages of the Sanhedrin, who preserve the tradition of the Jewish court as initiated by Moses and Aaron.When, however, there is no Sanhedrin in Eretz Yisrael, we establish the monthly calendar and institute leap years solely according to the fixed calendar that is followed now.
ב׳וְדָבָר זֶה הֲלָכָה לְמשֶׁה מִסִּינַי הוּא. שֶׁבִּזְמַן שֶׁיֵּשׁ סַנְהֶדְרִין קוֹבְעִין עַל פִּי הָרְאִיָּה וּבִזְמַן שֶׁאֵין שָׁם סַנְהֶדְרִין קוֹבְעִין עַל פִּי הַחֶשְׁבּוֹן הַזֶּה שֶׁאָנוּ מְחַשְּׁבִין בּוֹ הַיּוֹם וְאֵין נִזְקָקִין לִרְאִיָּה. אֶלָּא פְּעָמִים שֶׁיִּהְיֶה יוֹם שֶׁקּוֹבְעִין בּוֹ בְּחֶשְׁבּוֹן זֶה הוּא יוֹם הָרְאִיָּה אוֹ קוֹדֵם לוֹ בַּיּוֹם אוֹ אַחֲרָיו בַּיּוֹם. וְזֶה שֶׁיִּהְיֶה אַחַר הָרְאִיָּה בְּיוֹם פֶּלֶא הוּא וּבַאֲרָצוֹת שֶׁהֵן לְמַעֲרַב אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל:
2This concept is a halachah communicated to Moses on [Mount] Sinai:4In the Introduction to his Commentary on the Mishnah, the Rambam defines a halachah communicated to Moses on [Mount] Sinai as a law that is neither explicitly stated nor alluded to in the Written Law, but communicated through the Oral Tradition.See also the statements of the Ramban (loc. cit.), who objects to the Rambam's statements, and asks which source states that this is a halachah communicated to Moses on Mount Sinai. When there is a Sanhedrin, the monthly calendar is established according to the sighting of the moon. When there is no Sanhedrin, the monthly calendar is established according to the fixed calendar that we follow now, and the sighting of the moon is of no consequence.When the fixed calendar is followed, there are times when the day established [as Rosh Chodesh] will be the day on which the moon is sighted, and there are times when the sighting will either precede or follow it by a day.5As explained in Chapter 6, the fixed calendar is based on the mean motion of the sun and the moon - i.e., their average rate of progress in the heavens. As explained in Chapter 11 onwards, the progress of the sun, and to an even greater extent that of the moon, deviates from this mean from time to time. Although ultimately these deviations will balance out, at any given time the day established as Rosh Chodesh may be before or after the day on which the moon can be sighted. It is, however, an extremely extraordinary phenomenon for [the day established as Rosh Chodesh] to be a day after the sighting [of the moon], [and this is possible only] in the lands that are west of Eretz Yisrael.6As explained in Chapter 18, Halachah 13, in the lands west of Eretz Yisrael the moon is sighted earlier than in Eretz Yisrael.
ג׳וּמֵאֵימָתַי הִתְחִילוּ כָּל יִשְׂרָאֵל לְחַשֵּׁב בְּחֶשְׁבּוֹן זֶה. מִסּוֹף חַכְמֵי הַגְּמָרָא בְּעֵת שֶׁחָרְבָה אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל וְלֹא נִשְׁאַר שָׁם בֵּית דִּין קָבוּעַ. אֲבָל בִּימֵי חַכְמֵי מִשְׁנָה וְכֵן בִּימֵי חַכְמֵי הַגְּמָרָא עַד יְמֵי אַבַּיֵּי וְרָבָא עַל קְבִיעַת אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל הָיוּ סוֹמְכִין:
3When did the entire Jewish people begin using this calendar? At the conclusion of the Talmudic period, when Eretz Yisrael was in ruin, and an established court no longer remained there.7Based on the Rambam's statements in Sefer HaMitzvot (loc. cit.), the Chatam Sofer (Yoreh De'ah, Responsum 234) explains that the Rambam's intent is that, from that time onward, a formal court no longer held sessions in Eretz Yisrael; the land, however, remained populated by Jews. (See the notes on Halachah 5.) In the era of the Sages of the Mishnah, and in the era of the Sages of the Gemara until the time of Abbaye and Ravvah,8This concept is derived from Rosh HaShanah 21a, which states that Ravvah fasted two days on Yom Kippur, because he did not know which day was established by the court in Eretz Yisrael. [the people] would rely on the establishment [of the calendar] in Eretz Yisrael.9This refers to the establishment of the fixed calendar by Rabbi Hillel (Hillel II), approximately two generations after the composition of the Jerusalem Talmud.Most commentaries assume that the Rambam's intent is that until the time of Rabbi Hillel (not Hillel the Great, but a descendant of his, who lived several hundred years afterwards), the court sanctified the moon based on the testimony of witnesses. Rav Kapach objects to this interpretation, noting that the sanctification of the moon required judges with semichah, and it appears that the practice of semichah had been nullified prior to this time.Noting the precise words used by the Rambam, "[The people] would rely on the establishment [of the calendar] in Eretz Yisrael," Rav Kapach explains that the sanctification of the moon based on the testimony of witnesses had ended several generations previously, with the cessation of the practice of semichah. Nevertheless, the international Jewish community would look to the court in Eretz Yisrael for the establishment of the calendar. For the family of the Nesi'im had a private tradition regarding the calculation of the calendar. Nevertheless, at the time of Rabbi Hillel, this practice was also discontinued, and a fixed calendar was established that did not require the authority of any particular court.
ד׳כְּשֶׁהָיְתָה סַנְהֶדְרִין קַיֶּמֶת וְהֵן קוֹבְעִין עַל הָרְאִיָּה. הָיוּ בְּנֵי אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל וְכָל הַמְּקוֹמוֹת שֶׁמַּגִּיעִין אֲלֵיהֶן שְׁלוּחֵי תִּשְׁרֵי עוֹשִׂין יָמִים טוֹבִים יוֹם אֶחָד בִּלְבַד. וּשְׁאָר הַמְּקוֹמוֹת הָרְחוֹקוֹת שֶׁאֵין שְׁלוּחֵי תִּשְׁרֵי מַגִּיעִין אֲלֵיהֶם הָיוּ עוֹשִׂים שְׁנֵי יָמִים מִסָּפֵק לְפִי שֶׁלֹּא הָיוּ יוֹדְעִין יוֹם שֶׁקָּבְעוּ בּוֹ בְּנֵי אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ:
4When the Sanhedrin functioned and the calendar was established based on the sighting [of the moon], the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael and, [similarly, the inhabitants of] all the places where the messengers of Tishrei10See Chapter 3, Halachot 11-13. would arrive, would celebrate the holidays for one day only.The inhabitants of the distant places that were not reached by the messengers of Tishrei would celebrate two days because of the doubt involved. For they did not know the day that the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael established as [the beginning of] the new month.
ה׳בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה שֶׁאֵין שָׁם סַנְהֶדְרִין וּבֵית דִּין שֶׁל אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל קוֹבְעִין עַל חֶשְׁבּוֹן זֶה. הָיָה מִן הַדִּין שֶׁיִּהְיוּ בְּכָל הַמְּקוֹמוֹת עוֹשִׂין יוֹם טוֹב אֶחָד בִּלְבַד אֲפִלּוּ הַמְּקוֹמוֹת הָרְחוֹקוֹת שֶׁבְּחוּצָה לָאָרֶץ כְּמוֹ בְּנֵי אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל. שֶׁהַכּל עַל חֶשְׁבּוֹן אֶחָד סוֹמְכִין וְקוֹבְעִין. אֲבָל תַּקָּנַת חֲכָמִים הוּא שֶׁיִּזָּהֲרוּ בְּמִנְהַג אֲבוֹתֵיהֶם שֶׁבִּידֵיהֶם:
5In the present era, when the Sanhedrin no longer exists, and the court of Eretz Yisrael establishes [the months] according to the [fixed] calendar,11Implicit in the Rambam's words is a concept explained in greater detail in Halachah 13: The determination of the calendar depends on the establishment of the calendar by the court in Eretz Yisrael. according to law, it would be appropriate for [Jews] throughout the world to celebrate the holidays for one day alone.12As prescribed by the Torah. Once the date on which the festivals should be celebrated could be universally known because of the fixed calendar, the safeguard of celebrating the holidays for two days was no longer necessary. For [the inhabitants of] the distant regions of the diaspora and the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael rely on the same [fixed] calendar and establish [the festivals] accordingly. Nevertheless, the Sages ordained [that the inhabitants of the diaspora] retain the custom of their ancestors.13Beitzah 4b explains that this rule was ordained lest the gentile authorities oppress the Jewish people and prevent the inhabitants of the diaspora from communicating the tradition of the calendar to their descendants. They would then have to rely on information conveyed from Eretz Yisrael again.
ו׳לְפִיכָךְ כָּל מָקוֹם שֶׁלֹּא הָיוּ שְׁלוּחֵי תִּשְׁרֵי מַגִּיעִין אֵלָיו כְּשֶׁהָיוּ הַשְּׁלוּחִין יוֹצְאִין. יַעֲשׂוּ שְׁנֵי יָמִים וַאֲפִלּוּ בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה כְּמוֹ שֶׁהָיוּ עוֹשִׂין בִּזְמַן שֶׁבְּנֵי אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל קוֹבְעִין עַל הָרְאִיָּה. וּבְנֵי אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה עוֹשִׂין יוֹם אֶחָד כְּמִנְהָגָן שֶׁמֵּעוֹלָם לֹא עָשׂוּ שְׁנֵי יָמִים. נִמְצָא יוֹם טוֹב שֵׁנִי שֶׁאָנוּ עוֹשִׂין בְּגָלֻיּוֹת בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה מִדִּבְרֵי סוֹפְרִים שֶׁתִּקְּנוּ דָּבָר זֶה:
6Therefore, [the inhabitants of] all the places that the messengers of Tishrei would not reach in the era when the messengers were sent out should celebrate two days even in the present era, just as they did when the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael established [the calendar] according to the sighting of the moon.In the present era, the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael continue their custom and celebrate one day;14See, however, Halachot 11 and 12. for they never celebrated two days. Thus, our celebration of the second day of the holidays in the diaspora at present is a Rabbinic institution.15I.e., originally, the second day of the holidays was observed because of the doubt of the day on which to observe the Torah's commandment. In the present era there is no longer any doubt, and the observance of the second day of a holiday has the status of a Rabbinic ordinance.
ז׳יוֹם טוֹב שֶׁל רֹאשׁ הַשָּׁנָה בִּזְמַן שֶׁהָיוּ קוֹבְעִין עַל הָרְאִיָּה הָיוּ רֹב בְּנֵי אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל עוֹשִׂין אוֹתוֹ שְׁנֵי יָמִים מִסָּפֵק. לְפִי שֶׁלֹּא הָיוּ יוֹדְעִין יוֹם שֶׁקָּבְעוּ בּוֹ בֵּית דִּין אֶת הַחֹדֶשׁ שֶׁאֵין הַשְּׁלוּחִין יוֹצְאִין בְּיוֹם טוֹב:
7[Even] when the calendar was established based on the sighting of the moon, the majority of the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael would celebrate Rosh HaShanah for two days, because of the doubt involved.16To explain: Generally, the court would endeavor to structure the calendar so that the moon would be sighted on the thirtieth night of Elul. In expectation of the probability that the following day would be declared Rosh HaShanah, the people would observe all the holiday prohibitions and sound the shofar on the thirtieth day. Nevertheless, since it was possible that the moon had not been sighted, the people outside the immediate surroundings of Jerusalem would observe the following day as well.See the Jerusalem Talmud (Eruvin 3:9) which states that the observance of Rosh HaShanah for two days was ordained by "the prophets of the earlier generations." Sotah 48b states that this term refers to the prophets of the First Temple era. They would not know the day on which the court established the new month, because the messengers would not depart on the holiday.17See Chapter 3, Halachah 8.
ח׳וְלֹא עוֹד אֶלָּא אֲפִלּוּ בִּירוּשָׁלַיִם עַצְמָהּ שֶׁהוּא מְקוֹם בֵּית דִּין פְּעָמִים רַבּוֹת הָיוּ עוֹשִׂין יוֹם טוֹב שֶׁל רֹאשׁ הַשָּׁנָה שְׁנֵי יָמִים. שֶׁאִם לֹא בָּאוּ הָעֵדִים כָּל יוֹם שְׁלֹשִׁים נוֹהֲגִין הָיוּ בְּאוֹתוֹ הַיּוֹם שֶׁמְּצַפִּין לְעֵדִים קֹדֶשׁ וּלְמָחָר קֹדֶשׁ. וְהוֹאִיל וְהָיוּ עוֹשִׂין אוֹתוֹ שְׁנֵי יָמִים וַאֲפִלּוּ בִּזְמַן הָרְאִיָּה הִתְקִינוּ שֶׁיִּהְיוּ עוֹשִׂין אֲפִלּוּ בְּנֵי אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל אוֹתוֹ תָּמִיד שְׁנֵי יָמִים בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה שֶׁקּוֹבְעִין עַל הַחֶשְׁבּוֹן. הִנֵּה לָמַדְתָּ שֶׁאֲפִלּוּ יוֹם טוֹב שֵׁנִי שֶׁל רֹאשׁ הַשָּׁנָה בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה מִדִּבְרֵי סוֹפְרִים:
8Moreover, even in Jerusalem, where the court would hold session, there were many times when the holiday of Rosh HaShanah was celebrated for two days. For if witnesses did not arrive on the thirtieth day [following Rosh Chodesh Elul], the day on which they had awaited [the arrival of] witnesses would be regarded as holy,18As mentioned above, except for the offering of the Rosh HaShanah sacrifices, the thirtieth day following Rosh Chodesh Elul was always observed as Rosh HaShanah in expectation of the arrival of witnesses. and the following day would be regarded as holy.19For it would actually be observed as Rosh HaShanah.Since [there were times when] they would observe [Rosh HaShanah for] two days even when they sanctified the months according to the sighting [of the moon], [our Sages] ordained that even the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael20Including even the inhabitants of Jerusalem. should always celebrate [Rosh HaShanah] for two days in the present era, when [the holidays] are established based on the fixed calendar. Thus, even [the observance of] the second day of Rosh HaShanah in the present era is a Rabbinic ordinance.
ט׳אֵין עֲשִׂיַּת יוֹם טוֹב אֶחָד תְּלוּיָה בִּקְרִיבַת הַמָּקוֹם. כֵּיצַד. אִם יִהְיֶה מָקוֹם בֵּינוֹ וּבֵין יְרוּשָׁלַיִם מַהֲלַךְ חֲמִשָּׁה יָמִים אוֹ פָּחוֹת שֶׁבְּוַדַּאי אֶפְשָׁר שֶׁיַּגִּיעוּ לָהֶן שְׁלוּחִין. אֵין אוֹמְרִין שֶׁאַנְשֵׁי מָקוֹם זֶה עוֹשִׂין יוֹם טוֹב אֶחָד. שֶׁמִּי יֹאמַר לָנוּ שֶׁהָיוּ הַשְּׁלוּחִים יוֹצְאִין לְמָקוֹם זֶה. שֶׁמָּא לֹא הָיוּ הַשְּׁלוּחִים יוֹצְאִין לְמָקוֹם זֶה מִפְּנֵי שֶׁלֹּא הָיוּ שָׁם יִשְׂרָאֵל וְאַחַר שֶׁחָזְרוּ לִקְבֹּעַ עַל הַחֶשְׁבּוֹן יָשְׁבוּ שָׁם יִשְׂרְאֵלִים שֶׁהֵן חַיָּבִין לַעֲשׂוֹת שְׁנֵי יָמִים. אוֹ מִפְּנֵי שֶׁהָיָה חֵרוּם בַּדֶּרֶךְ כְּדֶרֶךְ שֶׁהָיָה בֵּין יְהוּדָה וְגָלִיל בִּימֵי חַכְמֵי הַמִּשְׁנָה. אוֹ מִפְּנֵי שֶׁהָיוּ הַכּוּתִים מוֹנְעִין אֶת הַשְּׁלוּחִין לַעֲבֹר בֵּינֵיהֶן:
9The celebration of the holidays for one or two days is not dependent on geographic distance [alone]. What is implied?If a place is located within a five-day - or less - journey from Jerusalem, and thus it was surely possible for the messengers to reach them, we do not postulate that the inhabitants celebrate only one day. For we have no way of knowing whether or not the messengers [of the High Court] would journey to this place.21As the Rambam continues to explain, the determining factor is not the geographic distance of a place from Jerusalem, but rather the custom followed in this place at the time when the High Court sent out messengers. Perhaps the messengers did not journey to this place because it was not populated by Jews at that time. [And if] it became populated by Jews after it [had become customary] to establish [the festivals] according to the fixed calendar, they [would be] obligated to celebrate two days.Alternatively, [perhaps the messengers did not reach there,] because there was a blockade on the way, as existed between Jerusalem and the Galilee during the time of the Mishnah,22See Bava Batra 38a and Ketubot 17b, which tell of a time when a blockade prevented communication between Jerusalem and the Galilee. or perhaps the Samaritans would prevent the messengers from passing through their [territory].
י׳וְאִלּוּ הָיָה הַדָּבָר תָּלוּי בִּקְרִיבַת הַמָּקוֹם הָיוּ כָּל בְּנֵי מִצְרַיִם עוֹשִׂין יוֹם אֶחָד. שֶׁהֲרֵי אֶפְשָׁר שֶׁיַּגִּיעוּ לָהֶם שְׁלוּחֵי תִּשְׁרֵי. שֶׁאֵין בֵּין יְרוּשָׁלַיִם וּמִצְרַיִם עַל דֶּרֶךְ אַשְׁקְלוֹן אֶלָּא מַהֲלַךְ שְׁמוֹנָה יָמִים אוֹ פָּחוֹת וְכֵן רֹב סוּרְיָא. הָא לָמַדְתָּ שֶׁאֵין הַדָּבָר תָּלוּי בִּהְיוֹת הַמָּקוֹם קָרוֹב:
10If the matter were dependent on geographic distance alone, all the inhabitants of Egypt would observe the holidays for only one day, for it is possible for the messengers of Tishrei to reach them. The distance between Jerusalem and Egypt via Ashkelon is a journey of eight days or less. Similar concepts apply regarding the majority of Syria. One thus can conclude that the matter is not dependent solely on geographic distance.
י״אנִמְצָא עִקַּר דָּבָר זֶה עַל דֶּרֶךְ זוֹ כָּךְ הוּא. כָּל מָקוֹם שֶׁיֵּשׁ בֵּינוֹ וּבֵין יְרוּשָׁלַיִם מַהֲלָךְ יֶתֶר עַל עֲשָׂרָה יָמִים גְּמוּרִים עוֹשִׂין שְׁנֵי יָמִים לְעוֹלָם כְּמִנְהָגָם מִקֹּדֶם. שֶׁאֵין שְׁלוּחֵי כָּל תִּשְׁרֵי וְתִשְׁרֵי מַגִּיעִין אֶלָּא לְמָקוֹם שֶׁבֵּינוֹ וּבֵין יְרוּשָׁלַיִם מַהֲלַךְ עֲשָׂרָה יָמִים אוֹ פָּחוֹת. וְכָל מָקוֹם שֶׁבֵּינוֹ לְבֵין יְרוּשָׁלַיִם מַהֲלַךְ עֲשָׂרָה יָמִים בְּשָׁוֶה אוֹ פָּחוֹת שֶׁאֶפְשָׁר שֶׁיִּהְיוּ שְׁלוּחִין מַגִּיעִין אֵלָיו. רוֹאִים אִם אוֹתוֹ הַמָּקוֹם מֵאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל שֶׁהָיוּ בָּהּ יִשְׂרָאֵל בִּשְׁעַת הָרְאִיָּה בְּכִבּוּשׁ שֵׁנִי כְּגוֹן אוּשָׁא וּשְׁפַרְעָם וְלוּז וְיַבְנֵה וְנֹב וּטְבֶרְיָה וְכַיּוֹצֵא בָּהֶן עוֹשִׂין יוֹם אֶחָד בִּלְבַד. וְאִם אוֹתוֹ הַמָּקוֹם מִסּוּרְיָא כְּגוֹן צוֹר וְדַמֶּשֶׂק וְאַשְׁקְלוֹן וְכַיּוֹצֵא בָּהֶן. אוֹ מִחוּצָה לָאָרֶץ כְּגוֹן מִצְרַיִם וְעַמּוֹן וּמוֹאָב וְכַיּוֹצֵא בָּהֶן. עוֹשִׂין כְּמִנְהַג אֲבוֹתֵיהֶן שֶׁבִּידֵיהֶן אִם יוֹם אֶחָד יוֹם אֶחָד וְאִם שְׁנֵי יָמִים שְׁנֵי יָמִים:
11Thus, the principles governing this matter can be summarized as follows: Whenever the distance between Jerusalem and a particular place exceeds a ten-day journey, the inhabitants should observe [the holidays] for two days, as was their previous custom. For the messengers sent out for Tishrei [cannot be guaranteed] to reach places other than those within a ten-day journey from Jerusalem.23For the messengers were forbidden to travel on Rosh HaShanah, Yom Kippur, and the two Sabbaths between Rosh HaShanah and Sukkot. In the years when Rosh HaShanah is observed on the Sabbath, the messengers could proceed a further day. Nevertheless, since this is not so in the majority of the years, a ten-day journey is accepted as the standard measure.[The following rules apply when, by contrast,] places are a ten-day journey or less from Jerusalem, and thus it is possible that the messengers could have reached them: We see whether that place is [located in the portions of] Eretz Yisrael that were inhabited by Jews during the time the calendar was established on the basis of the sighting [of the moon] during the second conquest [of the land] - e.g., Usha, Shefaram, Luz, Yavneh, Nov, Tiberias, and the like. [The inhabitants of these places] should celebrate only one day.If the place is part of Syria24Note Hilchot Terumah 1:3, which defines Syria as referring to lands conquered by King David before the entire territory of Eretz Yisrael proper had been conquered. Therefore, it was not considered part of the Holy Land with regard to most ritual questions according to the Torah itself. Nevertheless, the Rabbis extended many of the laws applying to Eretz Yisrael to this territory as well. - e.g., Tyre, Damascus, Ashkelon,25The inclusion of Ashkelon, which is located to the southwest of Eretz Yisrael, in Syria clearly indicates that the Rambam is referring to the halachic conception of the latter term, and not the geographic one, since Syria is to the northeast of Eretz Yisrael.There is, however, a slight difficulty with the Rambam's statements: In Hilchot Terumah 1:9, he describes Ashkelon as being part of the diaspora.and the like - they should follow the custom of their ancestors. If [the custom was to celebrate] one day, [they should celebrate] one day. [If the custom was] two days, [they should celebrate] two days.
י״במָקוֹם שֶׁבֵּינוֹ וּבֵין יְרוּשָׁלַיִם עֲשָׂרָה יָמִים אוֹ פָּחוֹת מֵעֲשָׂרָה וְהוּא סוּרְיָא אוֹ חוּצָה לָאָרֶץ וְאֵין לָהֶם מִנְהָג. אוֹ שֶׁהִיא עִיר שֶׁנִּתְחַדְּשָׁה בְּמִדְבַּר אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל. אוֹ מָקוֹם שֶׁשָּׁכְנוּ בּוֹ יִשְׂרָאֵל עַתָּה. עוֹשִׂין שְׁנֵי יָמִים כְּמִנְהַג רֹב הָעוֹלָם. וְכָל יוֹם טוֹב שֵׁנִי מִדִּבְרֵי סוֹפְרִים וַאֲפִלּוּ יוֹם טוֹב שֵׁנִי שֶׁל רֹאשׁ הַשָּׁנָה שֶׁהַכּל עוֹשִׂין אוֹתוֹ בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה:
12When a place is located within a journey of ten days or less from Jerusalem, and it is part of Syria or the diaspora, and [its inhabitants] have no [established] custom conveyed [from previous generations], they should celebrate two days, as is customary in the world at large. [The same rules apply to] a city that was created in the desert of Eretz Yisrael, or a city first populated by Jews in the present era.26Based on this halachah, according to the Rambam, most Jews living in Eretz Yisrael today should celebrate the holidays for two days. Indeed, the Eretz Tzvi, a text that documents the prevailing customs in Eretz Yisrael before the waves of European immigration, states that in cities like Ramlah, that did not have an existing custom dating back to the Talmudic period, the holidays would be celebrated for two days, as the Rambam states.It was not until the resettlement of Eretz Yisrael in the present era that such cities began observing the holidays for only one day. The source for this practice is the commentary of the Ritba (Rosh HaShanah 16b), who states that, in the present era, it is the geographic definitions of Eretz Yisrael and the diaspora that determine whether or not one should celebrate one day.[It must be emphasized that even according to the Ritba, it is questionable whether the inhabitants of areas of the Negev below Beersheba should celebrate the holidays for only one day. For these places are also beyond the geographic limits of Eretz Yisrael of the Talmudic period.][At present,] the celebration of the second day of a holiday is always a Rabbinic institution. This applies even to the celebration of the second day of Rosh HaShanah, which is observed by all Jews in the present era.
י״גזֶה שֶׁאָנוּ מְחַשְּׁבִין בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה כָּל אֶחָד וְאֶחָד בְּעִירוֹ וְאוֹמְרִין שֶׁרֹאשׁ חֹדֶשׁ יוֹם פְּלוֹנִי וְיוֹם טוֹב בְּיוֹם פְּלוֹנִי. לֹא בַּחֶשְׁבּוֹן שֶׁלָּנוּ אָנוּ קוֹבְעִין וְלֹא עָלָיו אָנוּ סוֹמְכִין. שֶׁאֵין מְעַבְּרִין שָׁנִים וְקוֹבְעִין חֳדָשִׁים בְּחוּצָה לָאָרֶץ. וְאֵין אָנוּ סוֹמְכִין אֶלָּא עַל חֶשְׁבּוֹן בְּנֵי אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל וּקְבִיעָתָם. וְזֶה שֶׁאָנוּ מְחַשְּׁבִין לְגַלּוֹת הַדָּבָר בִּלְבַד הוּא. כֵּיוָן שֶׁאָנוּ יוֹדְעִין שֶׁעַל חֶשְׁבּוֹן זֶה הֵן סוֹמְכִין אָנוּ מְחַשְּׁבִין לֵידַע יוֹם שֶׁקָּבְעוּ בּוֹ בְּנֵי אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל אֵי זֶה יוֹם הוּא. וּקְבִיעַת בְּנֵי אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל אוֹתוֹ הוּא שֶׁיִּהְיֶה רֹאשׁ חֹדֶשׁ אוֹ יוֹם טוֹב. לֹא מִפְּנֵי חֶשְׁבּוֹן שֶׁאָנוּ מְחַשְּׁבִין:
13The calculations that we follow in the present era, every individual in his community, to ascertain which day is Rosh Chodesh and which day is Rosh HaShanah, do not determine [the calendar], nor do we rely on these calculations. For we do not institute leap years or establish the monthly calendar in the diaspora. We rely on the calculations of the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael and their establishment of the calendar.The reason we make calculations is merely for the sake of information. For we know that the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael rely on the same calendar. Thus, our calculations are intended to determine the day that the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael establish as Rosh Chodesh or a festival. For it is the establishment of the calendar by the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael that establishes a day as Rosh Chodesh or a festival, not our calculations of the calendar.27The Rambam's statements in this halachah are a reiteration of the principles he expresses in Sefer HaMitzvot, loc. cit. Citing Isaiah 2:3, "Out of Zion shall come forth the Torah," the Rambam emphasizes that the determination of the calendar is solely the province of the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael.Until the time of Rabbi Hillel, the court of Eretz Yisrael determined the calendar through their independent calculations. Even after the court ceased to function and the fixed calendar was adopted, the determination of the calendar still depends on the establishment of the calendar in Eretz Yisrael. The only difference is that from the time of Rabbi Hillel onward, instead of determining the calendar independently, the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael would rely on the fixed calendar.For this reason, the Rambam points to a Divine covenant insuring that there will always be Jews living in our Holy Land. For were there not to be any Jews living in Eretz Yisrael, heaven forbid, we would not be able to determine the calendar. (See Chatam Sofer, Yoreh De'ah, Responsum 234).